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1.INTRODUCTIONMany reasons contributed to the 2021-2022 energy crisis, including the global push to limit carbon emissions, a shortage of reserves of petroleum due to the divestment of petroleum and coal, an interruption in crude oil extraction due to the COVID-19 epidemic, and the conflict between Ukraine and Russia. According to the empirical findings, the cost of gasoline increased around the world. The increase in fuel costs occurred during the COVID-era restrictions being lifted in 2021, as well as the Russia-Ukraine crisis in early 20221. Lebanon’s power sector is facing tremendous difficulties, with a growing number and prolonged disruptions, and an increasing likelihood of system failure. The national energy utility, Electricité du Liban (EDL), has been in a precarious financial position, which the country’s terrible economic crisis has exacerbated. The convergence of banking, financial, social, and health crises has eroded public trust and has led to an acute decline in core public services. Due to a lack of foreign money, the power company buys maintenance tools and spare parts, and the supplies of fuel are jeopardized. These considerations exacerbate the operational difficulties of both EDL and commercial diesel generators, prompting citizens to seek alternative options2. Renewable energy is obtained from refillable or reusable sources. One advantage of green energy is that it does not emit any dangerous substances or pollutants into the atmosphere or environment, making it healthy and secure for people as well as animals3. Gasoline prices across were highly associated. There is rising international backing for a change in energy sources that aims to use less polluted, cheaper, more available, and suitable renewable sources of energy like water, wind, biomass, and solar. This trend is influenced in part by the global need for energy safety, environmental prevention, and sustainability-related requirements. This chapter especially argues that a shift to renewables is necessary for economically viable and environmentally friendly energy not only in Lebanon but globally. Discovered in 1839 by the French physicist Alexandre Becquerel, the photovoltaic effect is a physical phenomenon that results in the appearance at the terminals of a semiconductor material of a potential difference when it is exposed to sun radiation. By connecting the two terminals of the material, it is possible to produce a direct electric current, which can be transformed by an inverter and a step-up transformer into an alternating electric current, and then it can be transferred to the public electricity distribution network (Figure 1). The direct conversion of solar energy into electricity occurs via a semiconductor material implemented in a photovoltaic panel. It requires no moving parts or fuel, generates no noise, and produces no gaseous and/or liquid emissions 4. Serious efforts began to seek practical, executable, ecological, and sustainable solutions that put an end to the energy dilemma. These solutions can make production energy costs more economical and ensure a healthy and clean environment for citizens. This research will shed light on the design of a small-scale Hydro-PV hybrid system (HHPV) with pumped storage capability for a small village, in a rural area within Mount Lebanon. 2.MATERIALS AND METHODSWarhaniyeh is a small Lebanese village, which is located around 45 km from Beirut, Lebanon’s capital. It rises between 700 m to 1350 m above sea level and is located in the Shouf, Mount-Lebanon (33°43’16”, 035°40’27). This village has a total area of about 4 km2 and has 1800 inhabitants within 350 houses, of which more than 10% live abroad. As Lebanon’s electricity provides the village barely two hours per day, the residents have resorted to diesel generators, which impose high prices: each 10A/220V subscription costs $10, as well as each KWh consumed costs 0.55$ for 6 to 8 hours per day. By average estimation, the family spend about 150$/month, and this village spends almost 630,000$/year as an overall cost for providing the current, and the fuel price escalation may contribute to an overrun in this estimation. Agriculture constitutes the most important livelihood of the villagers in consideration of the fertile lands watered by the Al-Safa springs, using the Beit-Eddine famous channel, which crosses the lowlands of the village. However, per conducting 2200 Watts as power (P), with an electric potential difference (U) equal to 220 V (per housing unit) for a 24-hour power supply, the current (I) will be determined as follows: The total demand, for the 350 house units, with 50% as a simultaneity factor(fsim), which is the ratio of individual peak load on the maximum demand used, will be calculated as follows: Based on the electricity demand graph, it is crucial to produce a system that could meet the village’s needs, respecting sustainably and the environment. To get the maximum benefit from this system, it is important to study thoroughly the photovoltaic and hydroelectric production potential of the site. 2.1Solar farmThis study proposes the construction of a solar farm5, with a capacity of one MWp (Megawatt peak) in the Warhaniyeh village. This site offers numerous advantages such as abundant sunlight; limited environmental constraints: no protected environmental zones, no risks; close proximity to the electrical grid connection; the project will contribute to local development, especially during the construction period, where local labor will be employed on-site. The photovoltaic solar farm project includes the installation of several parts. This solar farm contains photovoltaic panels attached to the steel frame, junction boxes that are connected to these panels, inverters connected to the junction boxes, transformers, technical rooms containing all electrical installations (inverters and transformers); and delivery post or station,which is acting as an interface between the photovoltaic park, the hydroelectric system, and the local grid (Figure 2). The estimated cost for electrical works that includes cables, inverters, transformers, controllers with automatic systems were estimated to be 220,000$. 2.2Site studyThis study will present the monthly and annual photovoltaic production potential of the designed system in the selected site, by using the Global Solar Atlas website6. It provides much information output such as solar radiation and irradiance levels in the studied site (Figure 3), total photovoltaic power output [kWh] (Figure 4), and horizon and sun path (Figure 5). Based on the graphs presented below, and by using the Time and Date website7, the average sunlight hours can be deduced in the studied site, by checking the sunrise, sunset, and daylight duration (Figure 6). 3.RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONBy analyzing the photovoltaic system’s production output each half hour, the following curves can be obtained (Figure 7). Based on the PV (photovoltaic) curve, it can be deduced that the production is highest at noon, with an excess of electricity that can be used for pumping. The potential energy of water stored in the artificial upstream basin needs 23,000$ to be constructed, which included the estimated cost for the dam construction. It will be utilized when the photovoltaic production is no longer sufficient, to turn the turbine while the water is going down to the downstream basin. To reduce costs and avoid using a large number of PV panels, thereby minimizing system losses during the cycle (PV production/pumping/turbine operation), the advantage of the natural flow of the river that runs through the Bossayl Valley in the western part of the village, originating from the Ain Zhalta-Nabeh-Al Safa sources can be taken into consideration. This is especially beneficial in winter when PV production is less efficient. A small hydroelectric power plant with a Micro-Pelton turbine should be installed for this purpose, which cost around 35,000$. It should conclude the total number of panels, and the distance between their rows, to design and execute their steel frame with the panels’ tilt angle. For 1000 kWp with a 700 Wp PV panel, the total number of panels: The estimated electricity production for this facility is 1703 MWh per year, with the installation of 1429 photovoltaic panels, each with a power rating of 700 Wp. The technical sheet of the chosen photovoltaic panel determines its lifespan: 30 years (15 years-92% power/30 years-85% power) at a cost of 0.19$/W (190,000$ for all the panels). Based on the Sun-Earth Tools website8, and between 8:30 and 15:30, the following tables can be obtained and the angle θ≈20° (Figures 8 and 9). Assuming panel dimensions are 2348×1303×35 mm, tilt angle 28°, 2.5 cm is the spacing between panels, and 70 cm is the clearance height for cleaning and maintenance operation, then the height difference will be as follows: Since the 429 PV panels will be installed on a flat surface, thus, the surface per panel is: The 1000 panels will be installed on a slope, with a surface area for each panel: Then total surface area will be the summation of S_429PV and S_1000 PV: The steel frame for a single PV panel includes two longitudinal galvanized steel beams that have rectangular hollow sections, with a length of 1.9 m and a section of 50 mm×25 mm-2.5 mm (2.23 kg/m), inclined at an angle α=28°. In addition to another three lateral galvanized steel beams (II), which have rectangular hollow sections, with a length of 1.305 m and a section of 30 mm×20 mm-2 mm (1.39 kg/m). Four vertical galvanized steel girders (III) with rectangular hollow sections (50 mm×25 mm-2.5 mm). Two of them have a length of 1.11 m, while the others have a length of 0.25 m. Several factors will be calculated to check the stability of the steel structure (snow with 40 cm thickness, and wind with a velocity equal to 80 km/h). Based on Structural Analysis9 and ASCE/SEI 7-2210, the surface roughness C: α=9.5. By simple calculation, the steel frame weighs almost 20.2 tons, and its manufacturing cost is almost 23,000$. Based on the simulation conducted using Autodesk Inventor Professional software11, the beam’s deflection values were acceptable, with 1.742 mm as the maximum deflection value. Furthermore, the stresses were not significant, and the buckling in the vertical girders was negligible as mentioned in the following figures (Figures 10 and 11). 3.1Hydroelectric power plantIt produces electricity, by using water to rotate turbines that in turn drive generators. Hydroelectric power plants can quickly deliver electricity in comparison with traditional fueled power plants. Pumped hydro comes in two types; open loop and closed loop. The first loop consists of upper or lower reservoirs that continually have access to a natural running water source, like a river (such the case of this village). However, the second loop generates electricity by pumping the water to a higher reservoir in the absence of any significant natural inflow. The studied site has a significant potential for hydroelectric power production and hydraulic storage, as it has 400 m as an average elevation difference. It consists of the following parts: Pumped storage, hydraulic sizing, and mechanical design. 3.1.1Pumped storage.It divides into two phases: pumping and generation. The first phase is a technique for electrical energy storage that involves pumping water from a river or basin to store it in an upper reservoir when electricity production exceeds demand. Furthermore, the second phase consists of releasing the stored water to produce electrical energy during periods of high demand, which helps in balancing electricity supply and demand. This technique was first used in Switzerland and Italy in the 1890s12,13. By the beginning of 2022, the installed global capacity has reached at least 942 GW14,15. Pumped storage energy transfer stations have two reservoirs: an upper and a lower one. Between these reservoirs, a reversible device is placed, which can act as a pump and a turbine with 100,000$ as approximated cost. In the studied site, the choice of two separate systems for generation and pumping is due to the very low flow rate. Certain construction was necessary to make sure that there is always sufficient water overall the year with 5,000$ as estimated cost. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, there were no reversible devices capable of functioning as both a pump and a turbine with high efficiency for this flow rate (Figure 12). To carry out an effective technical and economic assessment of the hydroelectric potential, which exhibits a large variation in available flow throughout the year, various types of turbines were checked. Two turbine types were analyzed, Francis’s turbines (economically cheaper in terms of equipment investment, having substantial operation restrictions due to flow variation) and Kaplan turbines (economically expensive in terms of equipment investment, with a wide range of operations about flow variation). Furthermore, a combination of these turbines kinds was used at the same hydroelectric power plant. The configuration optimization scenarios will be studied by using the following flowchart (Figure 13)17. The intersection of the three straight lines (flow rate=0.138/head=350/power=385 kW) lies within the domain of the Pelton turbine. By using the hydraulic turbine selection chart, it can be concluded the validation of the calculation. The design of a hydraulic turbine aims to reconcile three primary objectives: feasibility, competitive efficiency, and controlled costs. Two main parts should be designed for this turbine: the hydraulic size, in addition to the mechanical design of parts and their assemblies. Furthermore, the proposed site in Warhaniyeh is elevated about 342 m, with a total elevation difference of approximately 380 meters. The design flow rate is estimated at 138 L/s. The Pelton turbine is an impulse machine, which does not have a pressure difference between the inlet (the outlet of the injector) and the wheel (outlet). This turbine is particularly recommended for its ability to regulate flow over a wide range while maintaining excellent efficiency. Moreover, this regulation can be done very precisely thanks to the needle. By carefully adjusting the position of the needle using a hydraulic cylinder or an electric motor, the diameter of the jet and consequently the flow rate can be adapted. In fact, the pressure inside the casing is atmospheric pressure18. The operating principle is consisted of channeled water through a penstock from the intake chamber to the distributor, which directs the flow toward the injector(s). The injector that is responsible for accelerating the flow is converting the potential pressure energy into kinetic energy according to the law of conservation of energy. The injector ensures the convergence of the jet and is equipped with a needle to regulate the flow. It directs a high-speed cylindrical jet towards the wheel, which is composed of a certain number of buckets. In addition, the bucket has the important task of capturing as much kinetic energy from the jet as possible and converting it into mechanical power at the shaft. A bucket has a double spoon shape with a central ridge, also known as a splitter. The splitter divides the jet into two equal parts, causing it to flow into the concave section of the bucket where the energy recovery takes place. Once the water passes through the wheel, it needs to be oriented towards the outlet. 3.1.2Hydraulic sizing.The purpose of this section is to explain the various steps and calculations carried out to size the different components of the Pelton turbine from a hydraulic perspective and determine its characteristics. This sizing does not require a large amount of data for preliminary calculations. The data related to the installation site are as follows: Three main parameters need to be determined to define the Pelton turbine that best suits the characteristics of the operating site. These parameters are the Pelton diameter, the number of injectors, and the number of buckets. (1) Pelton diameter The diameter of the Pelton wheel is calculated based on the average velocity of the fluid at the injector outlet V (m/s). By applying the law of conservation of energy: where g is the gravitational constant and Cv is the velocity coefficient that accounts for losses in the injector (Cv≅0.98). Knowing the velocity V, we apply the equation for the Pelton velocity ratio, which is: where N is the rotation velocity (1500 round/min), D is the Pelton diameter (m), and χ is the velocity ratio U is the bucket tangential velocity, which is calculated by multiplying the angular velocity (rad/sec) of the wheel by half of the Pelton diameter. The ideal value for this ratio is 0.5, but the actual value for optimal efficiency is approximately 0.48. There are three main operating conditions of this type of turbine:
The injector (Figure 14) is responsible for accelerating the flow, which means transforming the pressure potential energy into kinetic energy by the law of conservation of energy. In addition, it is responsible for the jet convergence and equipped with a needle responsible for the flow regulating. The Pelton turbine is particularly appreciated for its ability to regulate the flow rate over a wide range while maintaining excellent efficiency. This regulation can be done very precisely due to the needle. By carefully adjusting the position of the needle using a hydraulic cylinder or an electric motor, the diameter of the jet is adapted and therefore the flow rate as well. From the simulation carried out using the Autodesk CFD 2023 software (Figure 15), the speed of the water flow in the wide section of the pipe (that of the penstock), for a diameter of 25 cm, given the speed just at the exit of the injector~80 m/s (narrow section), is less than 10 m/s. This result, compared to the water flow speed in the penstock of the Nabeh Al Safa-Rechmaya hydroelectric power station, which has an average value of approximately 6 m/s (with a net head of approximately 450 m and a diameter of approximately 50 cm) is therefore acceptable. (2) Number of injectors The injectors’ number depends on the dimensions of the buckets and the ideal jet diameter. The ideal jet diameter is determined based on the Pelton diameter and aims to ensure optimal efficiency. According to the Thake method19, the ideal jet diameter is defined as a fraction of the Pelton diameter (Figure 16), given by: The number of injectors is determined using the following equation: where B is the bucket cross-section, and ds is the diameter of the injector shaft. (3) The number of buckets Z To determine the number of buckets on the wheel, it is generally recommended to have a range between 18 and 24 buckets (Figure 17). However, it is important to carefully determine this value to avoid a situation where a portion of the incoming jet does not interact with any bucket. This phenomenon can have a detrimental effect on the turbine’s efficiency. 3.1.3Mechanical design.It consisted of developing three different parts the casing, injector, and deflector. (1) Casing The design of the turbine casing may appear relatively simple, but it is an important component responsible for directing water toward the turbine’s outlet. There are certain best practices regarding the minimum dimensions of the casing, such as the inner diameter and the clearance between the wheel and the top of the casing, which ensure proper water evacuation. If the casing does not fulfill its function effectively, it can result in a loss of efficiency in the turbine. Once the fluid flow has passed through a bucket of the wheel, it no longer contains any energy. If it interferes with the casing, significant losses can occur, potentially affecting the quality of the produced electric current. (2) Injector The injector of the Pelton turbine (Figure 14) serves two main functions: transforming pressure energy into kinetic energy by creating a homogeneous jet and accurately regulating the flow rate while introducing minimal pressure losses. To ensure the injector fulfills its functions correctly, its design should incorporate insights gathered over the decades of turbine development. The needles are actuated using hydraulic or electric cylinders. (3) Deflector The deflector is a safety device responsible for diverting the jet away from the Pelton wheel in the event of the turbine overspeed (Figure 14). It works in conjunction with the needle but has the advantage of being able to actuate rapidly without any risk of water hammer, allowing the needle to close gradually afterward. Overspeed refers to the maximum speed that the turbine can reach when it has no means to dissipate the energy it produces. This situation occurs when there is no load on the generator due to a malfunction in the electrical system. The overspeed velocity is defined as 1.8 times the nominal speed. Such high speeds can potentially damage the turbine, especially the generator. For safety reasons, the deflector is typically activated when the speed is 1.25 times higher than the nominal speed. Two main types of deflectors exist: the first has a sharp edge on the top to cut and divert an increasing portion ofthe jet as the wheel rotates. However, the second is inserted from above the jet. Cutting approximately half of the jet is sufficient to divert all the water from the wheel. Most turbines use the second type because, although it increases the distance between the injector and the bucket, it allows for faster action by only cutting a fraction of the jet. Moreover, positioning the deflector above the jet partially protects it from water droplets flying around the casing, which could disrupt its uniformity. Therefore, the second type of deflector has been chosen for the turbine design. (4) Hydroelectric power generation Electricity consumption has a fluctuation demand (between decreasing and increasing), depending on the interval of the time follows the following pattern (Figure 18), and using equation (2), the Pdemand can be obtained. In addition, the flow rate (Q m3/s) can be calculated (Table. 1) by using the following formula: Table 1.Flow rate values for different demands
where, η is the global efficiency ratio between 0.7 and 0.9. (5) Pumping It involves using a pump to move fluid. For the studied site, a robust pump is needed capable of moving the required volume of water to a height of 400 m, within a specific time interval, and with variable power. After analyzing different types of pumps, the best choice is a horizontal multistage pump. For the subsequent calculations, an average pumping efficiency value of 0.75 will be used. A multistage water pump can be either surface or submersible, which has the initial function of pumping water for drainage purposes, providing water supply to a network such as an irrigation or watering system, pumping water from a well, etc. It operates using electricity and is sized based on the flow rate (L/min.), pressure (bars), discharge head (m), suction head (for pumping water from wells), and the quality of the pumped water. These characteristics vary depending on each pump and its technology (multistage and single-stage). Unlike a single-stage pump, a multistage pump has multiple impellers (blade wheels) arranged successively. The water pumped by the first impeller is sent to the inlet of the second impeller, then to the third, and so on. The passage of water through the impellers increases its velocity, resulting in increased flow rate and water pressure. This mechanism has the main advantage of increasing the pressure and flow rate of water pumps, leading to a higher discharge head and better intrinsic functions (improved efficiency). A multistage pump can be self-priming (no need for priming before use). Multistage pumps are used in installations where high flow rate, pressure, and discharge head are required (pumping with significant elevation changes, flood control, etc.). A multistage pump can be either horizontal or vertical20. Instead of storing electrical energy through lithium-Ion battery pack (which are costly and have a limited lifespan: 500,000$/10 working years), the system will enable hydraulic storage in the form of potential energy in an upper reservoir through the pumping system21. The technical specification of the selected photovoltaic panel determines its lifespan: 30 years (15 years-92% power/30 years-85% power)21. Maintenance of the photovoltaic system includes real-time monitoring, maintenance of electrical installations, cleaning of PV panels, checking the operation of PV panels, and analysis of the production and electrical performance of the solar farm. However, micro-hydro systems can be installed quickly and have a very long lifespan, which can exceed 30 years23. In addition, the overall HHPV system costs, as mentioned before, 641,000$ without using any battery, instead of 933,000$ for constructing a system using only PV and lithium batteries with 10 working years. In other words, by estimating the project cost for the same period (30 years), the PV system that uses lithium batteries will cost 1,933,000$. Furthermore, the habitants will spend during this long period (30 years) 18,900,000$. The HHPV system provides the advantage of a 31.30% reduction in the project cost with triple working years, and the habitants can save 18,259,000$ along the assumed life cycle for the HHPV system. The hydroelectric maintenance service ensures preventive maintenance and regular inspections to ensure the reliable and daily operation of the power plant. Routine services should be checked periodically. These services include the following checking and inspections of the different parts (turbine, gearbox, drive belt, drive coupling, generator, hydraulic system, sensors, controller, intake area, pipeline, retaining structures, and gates), lubrication and inspection (gearbox oil of turbine bearings, oil conditions and changes, generator bearings hydraulic system). 4.CONCLUSIONSThis hybrid Hydroelectric Photovoltaic (HHPV) system with pumped storage designed in Warhaniyeh would be capable, through photovoltaic production on the one hand and hydroelectric production on the other hand, of meeting the electricity needs of this rural region. Smart control systems will be necessary to manage the required operations, especially in terms of demand analysis, flow regulation, determining the source that should supply the grid, and residential distribution. The daily pump-turbine cycle will guarantee a stable and satisfactory power supply 24 hours a day. The hydraulic storage in the upper basin will make the system less dependent on weather conditions and will be sufficient for several days. This design is a practical, executable, environmentally friendly, and sustainable solution that will solve the energy problem in this village. It can make the production cost more economical and ensure a clean and healthy living environment for the citizens. Furthermore, this project will be a source of local development, especially during the construction phase where local labor will be employed on-site. Job creation will continue even during the system’s operation phase (engineers, technicians, operators, workers, security personnel, etc.). The availability of cost-effective energy will encourage micro, small, and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs) to participate in the economic cycle. In addition, the feasibility study of the HHPV system showed its importance in reducing construction costs and saving residents’ income, as its construction needs to save approximately one year and provide the village with electricity for 30 years, with a low amount of money for maintenance and regular inspections. Such energy and ecological projects are fundamental for sustainable development. However, in the present time, where the global energy problem continues to expand, the most important aspect will be the existence of an aware community and responsible consumption… 5.FURTHER RESEARCHThese renewable energy projects can be implemented in Barouk Mountain, in Mresti village, Shouf. It is an exceptional location for an integrated photovoltaic wind-hydro system with immense hydraulic storage capacity. The site has remarkable sunlight, a steep slope (shorter conduits), and a 500 m elevation difference. Water sources are present and capable of supplying the hydraulic storage system. The wind speed at the summit is very significant. A new problem has recently emerged in Ain-Zhalta and Barouk. These two villages, whose sources provide water to many other villages and hydroelectric power plants, are unable to supply drinking water to their own reservoirs due to the electricity problems and the high cost of diesel. As a result, the large pumps responsible for pumping water from the lower sources to the upper reservoirs are usually offline. The pipelines that gravity-feed the water distribution network have an average flow rate of 1-2 m3/sec, while a maximum flow rate of 0.1 m3/sec is sufficient to supply water to the water towers of the two villages. Furthermore, more research should focus on studying a turbine that can be installed inside the large pipelines, and a pump connected to this turbine without the need for a generator/motor to push the necessary water to the upper reservoirs, and the possibility of optimizing such a system for other locations. 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