Shortwave infrared (SWIR) imaging capitalizes on the low tissue scattering and low autofluorescence in the near infrared- II (NIR-II) window (1000 nm – 1700 nm) for in vivo imaging with deep imaging penetration and high signal-to-noise contrast. Combining NIR-I excitation and emission in SWIR window, quantitative multiplexed imaging could be applied to study biological structures or physiological phenomenon in a single specimen. This study introduces a set of three high quantum yield lead sulfide/cadmium sulfide (PbS/CdS) core/shell quantum dots (QDs) with distinct SWIR emissions (1100 – 1550 nm). Applying these QDs, we demonstrated detailed lymphatic pathway, lymphatic drainage, and spatially overlapping vascular structures, marking a significant advancement beyond the conventional two-color schemes in SWIR imaging. We further evaluated the effect of surface coatings of the QDs on the pharmacokinetics and biodistribution of QDs in mice. The capacity to differentiate several fluorescent contrast agents through SWIR detection unlocks numerous opportunities for studies of disease progression, drug pharmacokinetics and biodistribution, and cell trafficking dynamics in living organisms.
The combination of bright, tunable semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) emitting in the shortwave infrared (SWIR, 1000 – 1600 nm) and InGaAs camera-equipped preclinical imagers opens the door to non-invasive, multiplexed, deep tissue imaging in live mice. We demonstrate the simultaneous imaging of three distinct QDs to highlight different regions of the mouse anatomy (lymphatic system, vasculature, liver, spleen, lungs, cerebrospinal fluid, gastrointestinal tract) through different routes of delivery. Video framerate imaging enables dynamic observation of anatomical processes in exquisite detail. By changing the surface chemistry of the different colored nanoparticles, the impact of nanoparticle surface coatings on circulation half-life can be visualized and the final biodistribution determined quantitatively. This deep tissue imaging with quantitative validation is being applied to paired agent imaging of tumor biomarkers and nanomedicine drug delivery investigations.
Inverted InP quantum dots emitting in the NIR-I window (700-900 nm) are promising fluorescent contrast agents for paired-agent imaging (PAI) due to their amenability to size-matching without compromising photoluminescence quantum yield. We present an optimized synthesis that uses drip addition of InP magic sized clusters (MSCs) as single source precursors. This method eliminates pyrophoric precursor from the shelling reaction and significantly reduces reaction time. We then synthesized a size-matched pair of NIR-I emitting inverted InP QDs for two-color PAI and then demonstrated two color NIR-I imaging of this QD pair in liquid phantoms and tumor spheroid models in vitro.
SignificancePreclinical fluorescence imaging with NIR-I (700 to 900 nm) illumination and short-wave infrared or NIR-II (1000 to 1700 nm) emission increases tissue penetration depth and improves resolution through decreased scattering. Background autofluorescence decreases signal-to-background ratios (SBR) in fluorescence imaging; maximizing SBR will further improve the impact of deep tissue imaging.AimThe impact of rodent diet, illumination wavelength, and emission range on the background fluorescence and contrast agent SBR were determined to assist with the experimental design of future imaging studies.ApproachFollowing illumination with 670, 760, or 808 nm, autofluorescence in the NIR-I (<975 nm), NIR-II (>1000 nm), and NIR-II LP (>1250 nm) regions was assessed in mice fed chow or a purified diet using an IR VIVO preclinical imager (Photon, Etc.). Comparison of the SBR of liver-localized indocyanine green in the various imaging conditions indicated when gut autofluorescence was a problematic confounder.ResultsMice fed chow exhibit high levels of background autofluorescence in the gastrointestinal tract and, to a lesser extent, skin when illuminated with 670 nm light for NIR-I imaging (700 to 975 nm), interfering with the identification of fluorescently labeled tissue. Background autofluorescence was reduced by more than two orders of magnitude by any of the following changes: (1) purified diet; (2) excitation with 760 or 808 nm illumination; or (3) emission in the NIR-II (1000 to 1600 or 1250 to 1600 nm). Although the SBR was generally sufficient for feature identification except when imaging of chow-fed mice with 670 nm excitation and NIR-I emission, switching to a purified diet, using longer excitation wavelengths, or using longer emission wavelengths improved SBR significantly.ConclusionsSystematic comparison of imaging conditions and diet highlights the reduction in autofluorescence and increase in SBR enabled by intentional choices in the experimental parameters including diet, excitation wavelength, and emission wavelength range.
Short wave infrared (SWIR) imaging is an emerging imaging modality that utilizes the near infrared-II (NIR-II) biological window, spanning from 1000 nm to 1700 nm. In comparison with traditional NIR-I imaging, SWIR imaging advances with low autofluorescence and superior tissue penetration, leading to high signal-to-noise contrast. In this study, we synthesized multiple PbS/CdS core/shell QDs with distinctive emissions across the whole NIR-II window with high quantum yields and photostability. Empowered by the core/shell QDs, we performed detailed in vivo lymphatic system mapping and multiplexed lymph node imaging that were otherwise unachievable from established NIR-I imaging.
Transabdominal imaging using photoacoustics (PA) is limited by optical attenuation of tissue due to high scattering and absorption in the near infrared (NIR) window. Tissue attenuation is lowered when imaging with longer wavelengths in the NIR window (> 950 nm). However, intrinsic optical contrast is limited in this range and exogenous agents such as gold nanorods (AuNRs) prove popular alternatives. AuNRs have unique optical absorption peaks, due to localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR), which allow tuning to wavelengths with minimal tissue attenuation. However, AuNRs tend to be bulky (> 50 nm) when adjusting peak LSPR to deep NIR wavelengths leading to poor clearance. In this study, we explored PA signal generation of a biodegradable and biocompatible semiconductor contrast agent – Cu-Fe (bornite) nanocrystals. The semiconductor nature of the nanocrystals allows for particles to be small (3-8 nm) facilitating excretion through kidneys. Here, PA signal generation of bornite was compared to two conventional photoacoustic contrast agents – AuNRs and indocyanine green dye. We found that at similar mass concentrations, bornite generated PA signal 5× greater than AuNRs. In-vivo imaging of bornite showed a 2x increase in sensitivity compared to AuNRs at similar volume concentrations.
KEYWORDS: Infrared radiation, Quantum dots, Infrared sensors, Sensors, In vivo imaging, Coating, Bioluminescence, Tissues, Signal generators, Resonance energy transfer
Luciferase-quantum dot (QD) conjugates enable excitation-free in vitro and in vivo imaging, but their use as sensors has been limited due to the use of randomly oriented conjugation strategies. We have developed an N-terminal specific conjugation strategy to orient NanoLuc luciferase on zwitterionic polymer-coated infrared QDs using a recently demonstrated 6-(azidomethyl)-2-pyridinecarbaldehyde-mediated azide labeling reaction. Using this strategy, we insert enzyme substrate peptide sequences between the luciferase and QD enabling detection of cleavage enzyme activity through bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET). We optimized and characterized these sensor constructs and demonstrate their ability to access enzyme activity.
KEYWORDS: Quantum dots, Multiplexing, Atmospheric particles, Short wave infrared radiation, Quantum efficiency, Infrared radiation, Infrared imaging, In vivo imaging, Signal to noise ratio, Shortwaves
Fluorescence bioimaging utilizing the near infrared-II (NIR-II; 1000 – 1700 nm) window, also named shortwave infrared (SWIR) imaging, exhibits superior penetration depth and signal-to-noise ratio compared to NIR-I imaging. We synthesized and characterized multiple lead sulfide/cadmium sulfide (PbS/CdS) core/shell quantum dots (QDs) with distinct, monodisperse size distributions, narrow emission, high quantum yield, and photostability for use in multiplexed NIR-II imaging. Following micelle encapsulation, the QDs are water-soluble, stably dispersed, and functionalized for easy click chemistry conjugation with targeting moieties. In vivo mice imaging with IV injected QDs showed very strong and distinctive signals for multiplexed imaging.
Antibiotic-resistant infections (ARIs) are a growing public health threat, and nanomaterial-based medicines present a solution due to their unique method of action that is unlikely to develop an evolutionary defense. We synthesize biodegradable, non-toxic bornite nanocrystals (NCs) that possess an LSPR peak at 1100nm. We coat these NCs with a generalized targeting peptide and demonstrate their lethality to multiple bacteria species. Finally, we show that these particles degrade in vitro and are non-toxic to mammalian cells at a high concentrations, showing the potential of these NCs as antibacterial agents.
The biodegradation and excretion of biocompatible semiconductor nanoparticles could avoid problematic bioaccumulation and enable translational applications that utilize their unique optoelectronic properties. Through our studies of ternary copper sulfide-based nanoparticles, we have identified compositions that exhibit useful optical properties while also degrading into benign, bioessential components. Comparison to toxic compositions provides insight into the structure-function relationship between composition, degradation rate, and toxicity. Considering biocompatibility even before the optical properties are optimized ensures that development favors compositions that are most appropriate for longitudinal in vivo studies.
We utilized these NIR QDs to demonstrate the utility of an image processing algorithm capable of determining the relative concentration ratios of two distinct emitters at various tissue depths. This algorithm is based on the dual probe imaging method, which we modified for use in wide-field imaging systems. The algorithm was validated using skin-mimicking tissue phantoms that were used to vary the effective imaging depth from 0-1.2 mm. The algorithm correctly determined concentration ratios of a two-color QD system for variations in concentration ≥ 10%, independently of depth. These contrast agents and the imaging approach are being adapted for use for in vivo targeted tumor imaging.ng adapted for use for in vivo targeted tumor imaging.
For the first time, we assess the biodistribution and toxicity of unshelled CIS and partially zinc-alloyed CISZ QDs in a murine model at 1-day, 7-day, and 1-month timepoints. We show that bare CIS QDs breakdown quickly, with >75% of the initial dose being cleared by 1-month. Surprisingly, we also demonstrate a significant toxic response to these QDs as measured by organ weight, blood chemistry, and histology. Specifically, low doses of CIS particles (15mg/kg) induce severe hepatotoxicity and splenotoxicity. Similarly, CISZ demonstrated significant, but lower, toxicity compared to bare CIS. Overall, our data suggests that reconsideration of CIS as a translatable QD system is required: degradation-based toxicity is an important aspect of biocompatibility that needs to be assessed in “non-toxic” QDs, if QDs are to ever be clinically successful. Finally, we suggest a non-toxic biodegradable alternative.
Optical imaging for biomedical applications holds much promise, particularly at near infrared I and II windows. However, the few NIR dyes are often toxic and are prone to photobleaching, while there are barely any NIR-II dyes. Semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) have tunable bandgaps into the NIR-II window, resist photobleaching, and have high quantum yields; however, QDs are traditionally made of cadmium, lead, or other toxic components. Furthermore, these QDs accumulate in vital organs and are cleared on the scale of months to years, limiting clinical relevance.
We have recently developed biodegradable, non-toxic QD platform composed of earth-abundant materials that can be cleared in under 1 month from all essential organs. Furthermore, this material exhibits a tunable bandgap out to 0.9 eV, reaching the NIR-II window. We demonstrate the degradability of this material in vitro and in vivo, as well as demonstrate its biocompatibility in a murine model.
Semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) have great potential for multiplexed imaging and biosensing applications. Due to the quantum confinement effect, spectral tuning of the emission color of these nanocrystals is made possible through changing their size. However, QDs of different emission colors are dissimilar in their brightness values, defined as the product of molar extinction coefficient (ε) and quantum yield (QY). These differences arise from extinction coefficients which are coupled to the number of atoms and bonds constituting the QD. As a consequence, the relative brightness of QDs can be orders of magnitude higher for larger, red emitting QDs compared to their smaller blue/green emitting counterparts even with comparable QYs. This study addresses this problem by drawing a quantitative comparison of absorption properties of different type-I InP QDs, aiming to make these heterostructures suitable for accurate imaging and sensing applications. Tuning of the absorption cross-section and extinction coefficients, along with brightness tuning of the QDs has been performed through synthesizing a series of QDs with a combination of core sizes, shell thicknesses, and compositions.
An alternative molecular recognition approach was developed for sensing small molecule analytes using the differential binding of an allosteric transcription factor (TF, specifically TetR) to its cognate DNA as the molecular recognition element coupled with fluorescent resonance energy transfer (FRET) to yield an internally calibrated optical signal transduction mechanism. Sensors were evaluated comprising Cy5-modified DNA (FRET acceptor) with either a tdTomato-TetR fusion protein (FP-TF) or quantum dot-TetR conjugate (QD-TF) as the FRET donor by measuring the ratio of acceptor and donor fluorescence intensities (FA/FD) with titrations of a derivative of the antibiotic tetracycline, anhydrous tetracycline (aTc). A proof-of-concept FRET-based biosensor was successfully demonstrated through the modulation of FA/FD signal intensities based on varying analyte concentrations. Sensor design parameters affecting overall signal-to-noise ratio and sensitivity of the sensors are also identified.
Cadmium-free near infrared (NIR) emitting quantum dots (QDs) have significant potential for multiplexed tissue-depth imaging applications in the first optical tissue window (i.e., 650 – 900 nm). Indium phosphide (InP) chemistry provides one of the more promising cadmium-free options for biomedical imaging, but the full tunability of this material has not yet been achieved. Specifically, InP QD emission has been tuned from 480 – 730 nm in previous literature reports, but examples of samples emitting from 730 nm to the InP bulk bandgap limit of 925 nm are lacking. We hypothesize that by generating inverted structures comprising ZnSe/InP/ZnS in a core/shell/shell heterostructure, optical emission from the InP shell can be tuned by changing the InP shell thickness, including pushing deeper into the NIR than current InP QDs. Colloidal synthesis methods including hot injection precipitation of the ZnSe core and a modified successive ion layer adsorption and reaction (SILAR) method for stepwise shell deposition were used to promote growth of core/shell/shell materials with varying thicknesses of the InP shell. By controlling the number of injections of indium and phosphorous precursor material, the emission peak was tuned from 515 nm to 845 nm (2.41 – 1.47 eV) with consistent full width half maximum (FWHM) values of the emission peak ~0.32 eV. To confer water solubility, the nanoparticles were encapsulated in PEGylated phospholipid micelles, and multiplexing of NIR-emitting InP QDs was demonstrated using an IVIS imaging system. These materials show potential for multiplexed imaging of targeted QD contrast agents in the first optical tissue window.
KEYWORDS: Quantum dots, Nanocrystals, Fluorescence resonance energy transfer, Biosensors, Resonance energy transfer, Molecules, Biological research, Molecular energy transfer, Chemical analysis, Biosensing, Cadmium sulfide, Zinc, Absorption, Sensors, Transmission electron microscopy, Mass attenuation coefficient, Refractive index
High-quality core/shell CdSe/xCdS quantum dots (QDs) ranging from 3 to 20 nm in diameter were synthesized for use as Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) donors. gNQDs are carefully characterized for size, emission, absorption, QY, and brightness in both organic and aqueous solution. FRET has been verified in optimally designed systems that use short capping ligands and donor-acceptor pairs that have well-matched emission and absorption spectra. The interplay between shell thickness, donor-acceptor distance, and particle brightness is systematically analyzed to optimize our biosensor design.
Quantum dots (QDs) are semiconductor nanocrystals with extensive imaging and diagnostic capabilities, including the
potential for single molecule tracking. Commercially available QDs offer distinct advantages over organic fluorophores,
such as increased photostability and tunable emission spectra, but their cadmium selenide (CdSe) core raises toxicity
concerns. For this reason, replacements for CdSe-based QDs have been sought that can offer equivalent optical
properties. The spectral range, brightness and stability of InP QDs may comprise such a solution. To this end,
LANL/CINT personnel fabricated moderately thick-shell novel InP QDs that retain brightness and emission over time in
an aqueous environment. We are interested in evaluating how the composition and surface properties of these novel QDs
affect their entry and sequestration within the cell. Here we use epifluorescence and transmission electron microscopy
(TEM) to evaluate the structural properties of cultured Xenopus kidney cells (A6; ATCC) that were exposed either to
commercially available CdSe QDs (Qtracker® 565, Invitrogen) or to heterostructured InP QDs (LANL). Epifluorescence
imaging permitted assessment of the general morphology of cells labeled with fluorescent molecular probes (Alexa
Fluor® ® phalloidin; Hoechst 33342), and the prevalence of QD association with cells. In contrast, TEM offered unique
advantages for viewing electron dense QDs at higher resolution with regard to subcellular sequestration and
compartmentalization. Preliminary results show that in the absence of targeting moieties, InP QDs (200 nM) can
passively enter cells and sequester nonspecifically in cytosolic regions whereas commercially available targeted QDs
principally associate with membranous structures within the cell. Supported by: NIH 5R01GM084702.
Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) between a quantum dot (QD) and the pH-sensitive fluorescent protein
mOrange has been used to develop a fluorescent pH-indicator that is bright and photostable enough for applications in
fluorescence imaging, including the tracking of molecules through endocytic pathways. As the molar extinction
coefficient of mOrange increases with pH, the ratio of the mOrange emission to the QD emission (FA/FD) increases
sharply, producing greater than 10-fold increases in the FA/FD ratio between pH 4.5 and 7.5. This probe has been
thoroughly characterized and it intracellular imaging potential explored.
Efficient Fluorescence (or Förster) Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) pairs between fluorescent proteins and quantum
dots (QDs) have a significant potential for ultrasensitive biochemical assays in disease detection and diagnosis. We have
developed such FRET pairs using commercially available QDs as donors and fluorescent protein as acceptor, with
polyhistidine-chelation as the means of bioconjugation. In this study we compared two brands of QDs with different
surface coatings and found that the FRET pair containing EviTags from Evident Technology produced a higher FRET
efficiency due to the shorter donor-acceptor distance. The polyhistidine binds directly to the ZnS capping layer of the
EviTags, whereas the carboxyl QDots from Invitrogen, although having a higher quantum yield, require the addition of
Ni2+ to the solution in order to facilitate chelation-mediated binding to outer surface of the polymer coating. These
findings have significant implications to QD-based FRET assay design.
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