Strontium iodide doped with europium [SrI2(Eu2+)] is a new scintillator material being developed as an alternative to lanthanum bromide doped with cerium [LaBr3(Ce3+)] for use in high-energy astrophysical detectors. As with all scintillators, the issue of nonproportionality is important because it affects the energy resolution of the detector. We investigate how the nonproportionality of SrI2(Eu2+) changes as a function of temperature from 16 to 60°C by heating the SrI2(Eu2+) scintillator separate from the photomultiplier tube. In a separate experiment, we also investigate the nonproportionality at high energies (up to 6 MeV) of SrI2(Eu2+) at a testing facility located at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. We find that the nonproportionality increases nearly monotonically as the temperature of the SrI2(Eu2+) scintillator is increased, although there is evidence of nonmonotonic behavior near 40°C, perhaps due to electric charge carriers trapping in the material. We also find that within the energy range of 662 keV to 6.1 MeV, the change in the nonproportionality of SrI2(Eu2+) is ∼1.5 to 2%.
The Advanced Energetic Pair Telescope (AdEPT) will explore the universe in the medium-energy range from about 5 MeV to greater than 200 MeV via gamma-ray pair production. AdEPT will provide high angular resolution observations and for the first time high polarization sensitivity over this essentially unexplored energy range. The NASA/GSFC quasi-monoenergetic 6 MeV Gamma Facility was built to characterize detector’s response of planetary science and astrophysics instrumentation to be done in house. It will provide the ability to study pair production imaging of the AdEPT pair telescope at the difficult low end of its energy range. There is no natural radioactive isotope that provides a gamma ray with energy above the 2.614 MeV line of 228Th. The quasi-monoenergetic 6 MeV gamma-ray source provides a calibration point at significantly higher energy and is thus necessary to the design and testing of astrophysics and planetary neutron/gamma-ray instruments. This paper presents the mechanical design of the facility and the measured activity of the source.
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Hard x-rays, Calibration, Gamma radiation, Monte Carlo methods, Error analysis, X-ray telescopes, Coded apertures, Space telescopes, X-rays
In addition to providing the initial gamma-ray burst trigger and location, the Swift Burst Alert Telescope (BAT) will also perform an all-sky hard x-ray survey based on serendipitous pointings resulting from the study of gamma-ray bursts. BAT was designed with a very wide field-of-view (FOV) so that it can observe roughly 1/7 of the sky at any time. Since gamma-ray bursts are uniformly distributed over the sky, the final BAT survey coverage is expected to be nearly uniform. BAT's large effective area and long sky exposures will produce a 15 - 150 keV survey with up to 30 times better sensitivity than any previous hard x-ray survey (e.g. HEAO A4). Since the sensitivity of deep exposures in this energy range is systematics limited, the ultimate survey sensitivity depends on the relative sizes of the statistical and systematic errors in the data. Many careful calibration experiments were performed at NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center to better understand the BAT instrument's response to 15-150 keV gamma-rays incident from any direction within the FOV. Using radioactive sources of gamma-rays with known locations and energies, the Swift team can identify potential systematic errors in the telescope's performance and estimate the actual Swift hard x-ray survey sensitivity in flight. These calibration results will be discussed and a preliminary parameterization of the BAT instrument response will be presented. While the details of the individual BAT CZT detector response will be presented elsewhere in these proceedings, this talk will focus on the translation of the calibration experimental data into overall hard x-ray survey sensitivity.
The Burst Alert Telescope (BAT) aboard the Swift Gamma-ray Burst Explorer (scheduled for launch in January 2004) is a coded aperture telescope that includes an array of 32,768 CZT planar detectors, each 4 mm x 4 mm x 2 mm thick. The mobility-lifetime products for holes and electrons are used to characterize the charge transport properties of each detector and were measured during pre-flight calibration tests in early 2003. These values were found to vary over an order of magnitude from detector to detector. In addition to the charge transport models, other more empirical models are used to characterize the remaining components of the response of the BAT array to 15 - 150 keV gamma radiation from any direction in BAT's field-of-view (FOV). The full angular and spectral response of the array as a whole can be parameterized and the spectral response of the instrument over the range of angles and energies can thus be generated in an overall instrument response model. Here we present a preliminary instrument response model and discuss the general characteristics of the detector array. The software to generate the response matrix for BAT is currently under development.
The properties of 32k CdZnTe detectors have been studied in the
pre-flight calibration of Burst Alert Telescope (BAT) on-board the
Swift Gamma-ray Burst Explorer (scheduled for launch in January 2004).
After corrections of the linearity and the gain, the energy resolution
of summed spectrum is 7.0 keV (FWHM) at 122~keV. In order to construct
response matrices for the BAT instrument, we extracted
mobility-lifetime (μτ) products for electrons and holes in the
CdZnTe. Based on a new method applied to 57Co spectra taken at different bias voltages, μτ for electrons ranges from
5.0x10-4 to 1.0x10-2cm2V-1, while μτ for holes ranges from 1.0x10-5 to
1.7x10-4cm2V-1. We show that the distortion of the spectrum and the peak efficiency of the BAT instrument are well reproduced by the μτ database constructed in the calibration.
In addition to high resolving power in the traditional x-ray band, the Constellation X-ray scientific goals require broad bandpass, with response extending to E >= 40 keV. To achieve this objective, Constellation-X will incorporate a hard x-ray telescope (HXT) based on depth graded multilayer- coated grazing incidence optics and position-sensitive solid state detectors. This paper describes the HXT performance requires, provides an overview of the HXT optics and detector technology development efforts, and present example designs.
One of the critical challenges for large area cadmium zinc telluride (CdZnTe) detector arrays is obtaining material capable of uniform imaging and spectroscopic response. Two complementary nondestructive techniques for characterizing bulk CdZnTe have been developed to identify material with a uniform response. The first technique, IR transmission imaging, allows for rapid visualization of bulk defects. The second technique, x-ray spectral mapping, provides a map of the material spectroscopic response when it is configured as a planar detector. The two techniques have been used to develop a correlation between bulk defect type and detector performance. The correlation allows for the use of IR imaging to rapidly develop wafer mining maps. The mining of material free of detrimental defects has the potential to dramatically increase the yield and quality of large area CdZnTe detector arrays.
The burst and all-sky imaging survey (BASIS) project is a proposed small explorer (SMEX) mission to image the gamma-ray sky in the 10 - 150 keV energy range with high angular and energy resolution. It will be able to determine the locations of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) to within a few arcseconds, sending accurate positions to ground-based telescopes for simultaneous and follow-up observations within seconds of the beginning of the GRB. It will also produce all-sky maps with 30 arcsecond resolution and 2 milliCrab sensitivity. The instrument uses a two-scale coded aperture mask to modulate gamma-rays falling on a cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) detector plane consisting of both 100 micrometer pitch strip detectors and 4 mm square spectroscopy detectors. The spatial pattern of gamma-rays will be deconvolved with the mask pattern to produce an image. This paper presents results from a prototype of this system, using a mask and strip detectors to produce an image of a radioactive source. The prototype functions as expected, producing images which, when scaled to the dimensions of the proposed instrument, achieve the desired resolution.
The burst and all sky imaging survey (BASIS) is a proposed mission to provide plus or minus 3 arc-second locations of an estimated 90 gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) per year. The BASIS coded aperture imaging system requires a segmented detector plane able to detect the position of photon absorption to less than 100 microns. To develop prototype detector arrays with such fine position resolution we have fabricated many 15 mm by 15 mm by 2 mm 100 micron pitch CdZnTe strip detectors. A 2 by 2 prototype 100 micron CdZnTe strip detector array has been fabricated and has been used to test the capabilities of the BASIS imaging system. Preliminary shadowgrams of a 1 mm wide gap between two tungsten straight edges indicate that our position resolution is on the order of 69 micrometers. Both the array and imaging tests are described. A 6 by 6 element CdZnTe detector array is also being fabricated at GSFC. The assembly of this flight prototype array is discussed as well as applications for BASIS.
Because of its high atomic number and convenient room temperature operation, CdZnTe has great potential for use in both balloon and space borne hard x-ray (5 - 200 keV) astrophysics experiments. Here we present preliminary results from the first CdZnTe background measurements made by a balloon instrument. Measurements of the CdZnTe internal background are essential to determine which physical processes make the most important background contributions and are critical in the design of future scientific instruments. The PoRTIA CdZnTe balloon instrument was flown three times in three different shielding configurations. PoRTIA was passively shielded during its first flight from Palestine, Texas and actively shielded as a piggyback instrument on the GRIS balloon experiment during flights 2 and 3 from Alice Springs, Australia. PoRTIA flew twice during the Fall 1995 Alice Springs, Australia campaign using the thick GRIS NaI anticoincidence shield. A significant CdZnTe background reduction was achieved during the third flight with PoRTIA placed completely inside the GRIS shield and blocking crystal, and thus completely surrounded by 15 cm of NaI. These background results are presented and contributions from different background processes are discussed.
CdZnTe strip detectors have been fabricated and tested to show the ability for arc second imaging and spectroscopy. Two dimensional CdZnTe strip detectors with 100 micron pitch have been fabricated and wire bonded to readout electronics to demonstrate the ability to localize 22 to 122 keV photons to less than 100 microns. Good spectral resolution has also been achieved. The uniformity and relative efficiency of the strip detector are discussed. Radiation damage effects by intermediate energy neutrons and low energy protons on the surface and bulk performance of CdZnTe devices have been investigated and are presented. Activation and annealing of radiation effects have been seen and are discussed.
Gamma-ray bursts remain one of the outstanding unsolved mysteries of astronomy. The next generation of instruments will address specific aspects of the gamma-ray burst problem and attempt to answer fundamental questions such as the distance scale. However, missing from the crop of planned or proposed instruments is one which combines high sensitivity and a large field of view, so that detailed studies can be performed on a large sample of weak bursts. Such a combination is difficult to obtain at a reasonable cost with the techniques currently used. We describe a novel application of the Compton telescope technique to the energy range 50 - 300 keV which can, in principle, provide the required capabilities using position sensitive semiconductor detectors.
We are studying a gamma-ray burst mission concept called burst arcsecond imaging and spectroscopy (BASIS) as part of NASA's new mission concepts for astrophysics program. The scientific objectives are to accurately locate bursts, determine their distance scale, and measure the physical characteristics of the emission region. Arcsecond burst positions (angular resolution approximately 30 arcsec, source positions approximately 3 arcsec) will be obtained for approximately 100 bursts per year using the 10 - 100 keV emission. This will allow the first deep, unconfused counterpart searches at other wavelengths. The key technological breakthrough that makes such measurements possible is the development of CdZnTe room-temperature semiconductor detectors with fine (approximately 100 micron) spatial resolution. Fine spectroscopy will be obtained between 0.2 and 150 keV. The 0.2 keV threshold will allow the first measurements of absorption in our galaxy and possible host galaxies, constraining the distance scale and host environment.
The Hard X-Ray Telescope was selected for study as a possible new intermediate size mission for the early 21st century. Its principal attributes are: (1) multiwavelength observing with a system of focussing telescopes that collectively observe from the UV to over 1 MeV, (2) much higher sensitivity and much better angular resolution in the 10 - 100 keV band, and (3) higher sensitivity for detecting gamma ray lines of known energy in the 100 keV to 1 MeV band. This paper emphasizes the mission aspects of the concept study such as the payload configuration and launch vehicle. An engineering team at the Marshall Space Center is participating in these two key aspects of the study.
A CdZnTe strip detector array with capabilities for arc second imaging and spectroscopy is being developed for a space flight gamma-ray burst instrument. Two dimensional strip detectors with 100 micrometers pitch have been fabricated and wire bonded to readout electronics to demonstrate the ability to localize 22 to 122 keV photons to less than 100 micrometers. In addition, good spectral resolution has been achieved. The uniformity of response and relative efficiency of the strip detector will be discussed. Results form electrical characterization which include strip leakage current and strip capacitance will be presented.
We exposed a CdZnTe detector to MeV neutrons from a 252Cf source and found no performance degradation for fluences below 1010 neutrons cm-2. Detector resolution did show significant degradation at higher neutron fluences. There is evidence of room temperature annealing of the radiation effects over time. Activation lines were observed and the responsible isotopes were identified by the energy and half-life of the lines. These radiation damage studies allow evaluation of the robustness of CdZnTe detectors in high neutron and radiation environments.
We are studying a Next Generation X-ray Observatory, NGXO, that will provide a high resolution spectral capability with large collecting area, at a relatively low cost. The mission consists of two co-aligned telescope systems that provide coverage from 0.3 - 60 keV. One is optimized to cover the 0.3 - 12 keV band with 2 eV spectral resolution using an array of quantum calorimeters with a peak effective area of 2,000 cm2. The spectral resolution will be five times better than the calorimeter planned for Astro-E, with more than a ten-fold increase in effective area over previous high resolution x-ray spectroscopy missions. The second telescope will be the first focusing optics to operate in the 10 - 60 keV energy range, and will have arc minute angular resolution with 500 cm2 collecting area at 30 keV. The sensitivities of the two telescopes are matched to make possible many thousands of high quality x-ray spectral observations, from an available population of more than one million galactic and extragalactic x-ray sources. The NGXO mission is capable of addressing new astrophysical problems which include: determining the mass of a black hole, neutron star, or white dwarf in binary systems from x-ray line radial velocity measurements; determining the 0.3 - 60 keV x-ray spectrum from AGN and determining their contribution to the x-ray background in this energy band; measuring Compton reflection spectra from cold material in accretion driven systems; determining the Hubble constant using resonant line absorption of QSO spectra by rich clusters; searching for a hot 10 million degree intergalactic medium; mapping the dynamics of the intracluster medium; mapping the ionization state, abundance and emission from supernova remnants on a 15 arc second angular scale; and measuring mass motion in stellar flares and the dynamics of accretion flows.
We have proposed a gamma-ray burst mission concept called burst arcsecond imaging and spectroscopy (BASIS) in response to NASA's announcement for new mission concept studies. The scientific objectives are to accurately locate bursts, determine their distance scale, and measure the physical characteristics of the emission region. Arcsecond burst positions (angular resolution approximately 30 arcsec, source positions approximately 3 arcsec for greater than 10-6 erg cm-2 bursts) are obtained for about 100 bursts per year using the 10 - 200 keV emission. This allows the first deep, unconfused counterpart searches at other wavelengths. The key technological breakthrough that makes such measurements possible is the development of CdZnTe room-temperature semiconductor detectors with fine (approximately 100 micron) spatial resolution. Fine spectroscopy is obtained between 0.2 keV and 200 keV. The 0.2 keV threshold allows the first measurements of absorption in our galaxy and possible host galaxies, constraining the distance scale and host environment. The mission concept and its scientific objectives are described.
Room temperature cadmium zinc telluride (CdZnTe) and mercuric iodide (HgI2) semiconductor hard X-ray detectors are currently being evaluated at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center for use in future balloon and satellite applications. PoRTIA, a small engineering prototype hard X-ray (20 - 150 keV) balloon instrument will contain both a CdZnTe and a HgI2 detector, each 6.5 cm2 x .15 - .2 cm and sharing the same 5 degree(s) field-of-view. PoRTIA will be launched from Alice Springs, Australia in the Spring of 1995 as a piggyback instrument aboard the GRIS balloon payload. PoRTIA will provide valuable information about detector efficiency, durability and material dependent detector background components at balloon altitudes as it observes the Crab Nebula. In addition, a CdZnTe research and development program has been initiated to develop the capability to produce improved CdZnTe detectors for astrophysics applications. The work at Goddard continues in an effort to develop CdZnTe detectors with improvements in electronics, contacts and packaging methods.
We are building a new type of hard X-ray detector (35-300 keV) for astronomical observations, a high pressure (20 atmospheres) imaging xenon gas scintillation drift chamber. This detector combines the concepts of the gas scintillation chamber and the time projection chamber, utilizing waveshifting fibers to read out the scintillation light. This detector will be the focal plane instrument of the Scintillation Imaging Gas-filled Hard X- ray Telescope (SIGHT), a balloon-borne instrument which promises to combine high sensitivity (2.2 x 10-5 (gamma /cm2sec for narrow lines and 4 x 10-6 (gamma /cm2sec/keV continuum at 70 keV), very good energy resolution (2.6% FWHM 122 keV), and outstanding imaging (1.5 arcminute map pixels). We summarize the capabilities of SIGHT and present recent technical innovations and construction status of the detector.
We describe a balloon-borne hard X-ray telescope called SIGHT (Scintillation Imaging Gas-filled Hard X-ray Telescope). SIGHT is a high sensitivity, good energy resolution instrument that images in the 30 to 300 keV region. We discuss the development of a large area, 20 atmosphere, position sensitive xenon gas scintillation drift chamber which is the gamma-ray detector at the heart of the telescope package. Results of the development of the novel waveshifting fiber readout for this chamber are presented.
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