SignificanceCartilage tissue engineering is a promising strategy for effective curative therapies for treatment of osteoarthritis. However, tissue engineers depend predominantly on time-consuming, expensive, and destructive techniques as quality control to monitor the maturation of engineered cartilage. This practice can be impractical for large-scale biomanufacturing and prevents spatial and temporal monitoring of tissue growth, which is critical for the fabrication of clinically relevant-sized cartilage constructs. Nondestructive multimodal imaging techniques combining fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIm) and optical coherence tomography (OCT) hold great potential to address this challenge.AimThe feasibility of using multimodal FLIm–OCT for nondestructive, spatial, and temporal monitoring of self-assembled cartilage tissue maturation in a preclinical mouse model is investigated.ApproachSelf-assembled cartilage constructs were developed for 4 weeks in vitro followed by 4 weeks of in vivo maturation in nude mice. Sterile and nondestructive in situ multispectral FLIm and OCT imaging were carried out at multiple time points (t = 2, 4, and 8 weeks) during tissue development. FLIm and 3D volumetric OCT images were reconstructed and used for the analysis of tissue biochemical homogeneity, morphology, and structural integrity. A biochemical homogeneity index was computed to characterize nonhomogeneous tissue growth at different time points. OCT images were validated against histology.ResultsFLIm detects heterogenous extracellular matrix (ECM) growth of tissue-engineered cartilage. The outer edge of the tissue construct exhibited longer fluorescence lifetime in 375 to 410 and 450 to 485 nm spectral channels, indicating increase in collagen content. Significant (p < 0.05) decrease of construct homogeneity index was observed between t = 2 weeks and t = 4 weeks. Both FLIm and OCT images revealed defects (voids) at the center of the tissue construct during in vitro culture (t = 2 and 4 weeks). Cyst formation during in vivo culture was detected by OCT and confirmed with histology.ConclusionsThe ability of multimodal FLIm–OCT to nondestructively monitor the heterogenous growth of engineered tissue constructs in situ is demonstrated. Spatial and temporal variation of construct ECM component was detected by FLIm. OCT reveals structural defects (voids and cysts). This multimodal approach has great potential to replace costly destructive tests in the manufacturing of tissue-engineered medical products, facilitating their clinical translation.
Genipin cross-linked engineered tissues are 10000 times less toxic than glutaraldehyde cross-linked tissues. Hence, genipin is a better fixative to support the recellularization of tissue-engineered constructs such as vascular grafts. Here, we demonstrate the ability of fiber-based Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging (FLIm) guided Raman spectroscopy to monitor the quality of genipin cross-linked vascular grafts with high speed and specificity.
Current results indicate that the fluorescence lifetime of AR-BP shortens upon GE cross-linking. Raman spectroscopy reveals secondary structural changes occurring in the extracellular matrix of pericardia that correspond to Amide I, Amide III and C-C stretch vibrations.
We conclude that FLIm guided Raman imaging can detect cross-linking signatures with biochemical specificity and that this imaging modality provides a non-destructive and label-free method to assess the quality of vascular grafts
We demonstrated the ability of fiber-based Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging (FLIm) guided Raman spectroscopy to monitor the quality of engineered vascular grafts with high speed and specificity. We report FLIm guided Raman imaging as an effective multimodal technique to evaluate scaffold cross-linking and localized calcification. Current results indicate that the lifetime of AR-BP shortens upon GA cross-linking,and Raman spectroscopy reveals secondary structural changes occurring in the Amide I region of cross-linked pericardia. GA fixed vascular grafts are prone to calcification, an effect linked to graft failure. The calcified regions exhibited shorter lifetimes in fluorescence spectral bands ranging from 380 to 455 nm and Raman spectra exhibited the specific hydroxyapatite signature at 960 cm-1 co-localized with these lower lifetime regions. We conclude that FLIm guided Raman imaging can detect cross-linking signatures and areas of calcification in tissue with biochemical specificity.
Tissue engineered vascular graft (TEVG) are used when native vessels are not available to repair vascular damage. At the time of implantation in human body, these constructs present poor cellularity. To understand the cellularization kinetics under physiological conditions in a setting suitable for experimentation, bioreactors are often used in laboratory setting because of its controllable culture parameters including seeding conditions, flow type, pressure and temperature. Therefore, a non-destructive, label-free imaging modality that is capable of evaluating cell migration on luminal surfaces of TEVGs inside bioreactors is valuable for studying cellularization kinetics and providing a potential quality control method for manufacturing mature TEVGs. A multispectral Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging (ms-FLIm) using 355 nm excitation was configured to accommodate a rotating side-firing scanning probe for intraluminal imaging of tubular-shaped bovine pericardium (BP) scaffolds. The scanning was realized by reciprocal rotation and pullback of the fiber probe. Mesenchymal stem cells were seeded on BP-based TEVGs and cultured in the prototype bioreactor for up to one week. Distinct experimental conditions including the seeding side (i.e. BP serious and fibrous side) and media flow (i.e. static and dynamic pulsatile flow) were evaluated. Using ms-FLIm, the migration of cells on antigen removed BP TEVGs was periodically examined over a week; and the migration rates under different conditions were analyzed. Current results suggest helical ms-FLIm has potential to monitor in situ tissue recellularization process in bioreactors.
A fiber-based, label-free multispectral fluorescence lifetime imaging and intravascular ultrasound (FLIm/IVUS) system was evaluated as a new tool for monitoring variations in biochemical and structural composition of vascular biomaterials, including native arteries and engineered vascular grafts both in vitro and in vivo. Fiber-based FLIm was adapted to assess the hollow geometry of vasculature, allowing for imaging of the luminal surface of vessels. The capacity of FLIm to resolve tissue cellular location (i.e. scaffold reendothelialization) and collagen to elastin ratio on the vessel wall was investigated. Quantitative imaging parameters derived from spectrally- and temporally-resolved autofluorescence (i.e. intensity ratios and fluorescence lifetime) provide benchmark indicators to identify areas of recellularized tissue, and to distinguish wall matrix compositions within and across biomaterials. In addition, fiber-based FLIm was complemented with intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) for simultaneous in vivo evaluation of biochemical and structural tissue properties. Here, we performed an in vitro evaluation of pig carotid arteries and show correlations between FLIm parameters and biochemical composition in different anatomical locations. We discuss the spectral and lifetime differences between native pig carotid artery, acellular antigen removed bovine pericardium grafts, and reendotheliarized grafts. Finally, we translate the findings to an in vivo clinical FLIm/IVUS imaging study with antigen removed bovine pericardium grafted on healthy pig native carotid artery. Upon implantation, the graft is expected to repopulate with cells, and change composition as cells remodel it. These experiments demonstrate the feasibility of fiber-based FLIm/IVUS to examine vascular engineered tissue in research and clinical settings.
Tissue engineers rely on expensive, time-consuming, and destructive techniques to monitor the composition and function of engineered tissue equivalents. A non-destructive solution to monitor tissue quality and maturation would greatly reduce costs and accelerate the development of tissue-engineered products. A label-free multimodal system combining fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIm) and optical coherence tomography (OCT) via a single fiber-optic interface was used for evaluation of biochemical and structural properties of tissue-engineered articular cartilage in a murine model of cartilage maturation. Nude mice (n=5) received 2 dorsal subcutaneous tissue-engineered cartilage implants each consisting of: 1) latent transforming growth factor-beta1 (LAP) treated; and 2) untreated control (CTL) constructs. At 6 weeks post-implantation, mice were sacrificed and multimodal imaging was performed in situ. FLIm showed clear delineation of the implant in all spectral bands (SB). Quantification of the cartilage construct fluorescence lifetime (LT) showed a lower LT in SB-1 (375-410 nm) and higher SB-3 LT (515-565 nm) as compared to the surrounding muscle tissue. Comparison between treatment groups showed a significant increase in FLIm SB-3 LT in LAP-treated constructs over CTL (p < 0.01). Quantification of OCT images allowed implant morphology and 3D volume comparisons between treatment groups. These results suggest that FLIm-OCT based tools are a potential non-destructive method for quantitatively monitoring the growth and quality of tissue engineered articular cartilage. The use of optical techniques to monitor maturation could represent a significant element in reducing costs in research, meeting the FDA regulatory requirements for manufacturing, and providing novel diagnostic tools in the clinic.
Glycosaminoglycan (GAG) loss is an early marker of osteoarthritis, which is a clinical late stage disease that affects millions of people worldwide. The goal of our study was to evaluate the ability of a fiber-based fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIm) technique to detect GAG loss in articular cartilage. Native bovine cartilage explants (n = 20) were exposed to 0 (control), 0.5 (low), or 1 U / mL (high) concentrations of chondroitinase ABC (cABC) to create samples with different levels of GAG loss. FLIm assessment (excitation: 355 nm; detection: channel 1: 375 to 410 nm, channel 2: 450 to 485 nm, channel 3: 530 to 565 nm) was conducted on depth-resolved cross-sections of the cartilage sample. FLIm images, validated with histology, revealed that loss of GAG resulted in a decrease of fluorescence lifetime values in channel 2 (Δ = 0.44 ns, p < 0.05) and channel 3 (Δ = 0.75 ns, p < 0.01) compared to control samples (channel 2: 6.34 ns; channel 3: 5.22 ns). Fluorescence intensity ratio values were lower in channel 1 (37%, p < 0.0001) and channel 2 (31% decrease, p < 0.0001) and higher in channel 3 (23%, p < 0.0001) relative to control samples. These results show that FLIm can detect the loss of GAG in articular cartilage and support further investigation into the feasibility of in vivo FLIm arthroscopy.
We investigate the use of a fiber-based, multispectral fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIm) system to nondestructively monitor changes in mechanical properties of collagen hydrogels caused by controlled application of widely used cross-linking agents, glutaraldehyde (GTA) and ribose. Postcross-linking, fluorescence lifetime images are acquired prior to the hydrogels being processed by rheological or tensile testing to directly probe gel mechanical properties. To preserve the sterility of the ribose-treated gels, FLIm is performed inside a biosafety cabinet (BSC). A pairwise correlation analysis is used to quantify the relationship between mean hydrogel fluorescence lifetimes and the storage or Young’s moduli of the gels. In the GTA study, we observe strong and specific correlations between fluorescence lifetime and the storage and Young’s moduli. Similar correlations are not observed in the ribose study and we postulate a reason for this. Finally, we demonstrate the ability of FLIm to longitudinally monitor dynamic cross-link formation. The strength of the GTA correlations and deployment of our fiber-based FLIm system inside the aseptic environment of a BSC suggests that this technique may be a valuable tool for the tissue engineering community where longitudinal assessment of tissue construct maturation in vitro is highly desirable.
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