KEYWORDS: Brain-machine interfaces, Electroencephalography, Data modeling, Neurophotonics, Feature extraction, Prefrontal cortex, Brain, Machine learning, Deep learning, Education and training
Significance: Optical neuroimaging has become a well-established clinical and research tool to monitor cortical activations in the human brain. It is notable that outcomes of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) studies depend heavily on the data processing pipeline and classification model employed. Recently, deep learning (DL) methodologies have demonstrated fast and accurate performances in data processing and classification tasks across many biomedical fields.Aim: We aim to review the emerging DL applications in fNIRS studies.Approach: We first introduce some of the commonly used DL techniques. Then, the review summarizes current DL work in some of the most active areas of this field, including brain–computer interface, neuro-impairment diagnosis, and neuroscience discovery.Results: Of the 63 papers considered in this review, 32 report a comparative study of DL techniques to traditional machine learning techniques where 26 have been shown outperforming the latter in terms of the classification accuracy. In addition, eight studies also utilize DL to reduce the amount of preprocessing typically done with fNIRS data or increase the amount of data via data augmentation.Conclusions: The application of DL techniques to fNIRS studies has shown to mitigate many of the hurdles present in fNIRS studies such as lengthy data preprocessing or small sample sizes while achieving comparable or improved classification accuracy.
Optical neuroimaging is a promising tool to assess motor skills execution. Especially, functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) enables the monitoring of cortical activations in scenarios such as surgical task execution. fNIRS data sets are typically preprocessed to derive a few biomarkers that are used to provide a correlation between cortical activations and behavior. Meanwhile, Deep Learning methodologies have found great utility in the data processing of complex spatiotemporal data for classification or prediction tasks. Here, we report on a Deep Convolutional model that takes spatiotemporal fNIRS data sets as input to classify subjects performing a Fundamentals of Laparoscopic Surgery (FLS) task used in board certification of general surgeons in the United States. This convolutional neural network (CNN) uses dilated kernels paired with multiple stacks of convolution to capture long-range dependencies in the fNIRS time sequence. The model is trained in a supervised manner on 474 FLS trials obtained from seven subjects and assessed independently by stratified-10-fold cross-validation (CV). Results demonstrate that the model can learn discriminatory features between passed and failed trials, attaining 0.99 and 0.95 area under the Receiver Operating Characteristics (ROC) and Precision-Recall curves, respectively. The reported accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity are 97.7%, 81%, and 98.9%, respectively.
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