An active 3D microwave / millimeter-wave shoe scanner was previously developed at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) using two linear arrays scanned over a rectilinear aperture. The radar system chirps a frequency sweep from 10-40 GHz. These frequencies allow imaging through optically opaque material such as leather, rubber, plastics, and other dielectrics. The system was designed to detect concealed items in the soles of shoes while allowing people to leave their shoes on through a security checkpoint. To shrink the footprint of the system, a new iteration of the design has been developed that scans the two linear arrays over a circular aperture. This new footprint opens the possibility of it being installed in the floor of a cylindrical millimeter-wave body scanner. The backprojection-based multilayer dielectric image reconstruction developed at PNNL can easily handle arbitrary spatial sampling, accommodating the new rotational shoe scanner design. Commonly, the fast Fourier transform (FFT) is used to efficiently compute the range response from the data collected by the system as a preprocessing step to the backprojection algorithm. It was found that converting to range using the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) directly has some advantages over the FFT. For example, nonlinear and non-uniform frequency sweeps can easily be compensated for during the computation of the DFT and only the range bins of interest need to be computed and their spacing can be chosen arbitrarily. Because the range conversion step of the image reconstruction is the fastest part of the process there is very little speed penalty for using the DFT over the FFT and it can even increase the speed of image reconstruction when the ranges of interest are fewer than the total span that is calculated in the FFT.
The Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) has recently developed a next-generation cylindrical millimeter-wave imaging system. This system is based on linear sparse multistatic imaging arrays. Data from this system can be focused using 3D FFT-based reconstruction algorithms, which are reasonably efficient and can be performed in near real time, or by back-projection methods that are versatile and more accurate but are computationally intensive and require lengthy post-processing. Cylindrical Fast Backprojection (CFBP) is a novel image reconstruction algorithm developed at PNNL that radically increases the efficiency of backprojection and is ideally suited to microwave and millimeter-wave imaging systems based on scanned linear arrays such as body scanners in common use for aviation security screening. This method achieves its gains in efficiency by separating a full backprojection into a sequence of three steps, range focusing, vertical focusing, and lateral focusing, with intermediate results used to avoid repetitive multidimensional computation. The method is called cylindrical fast backprojection due to the use of two-dimensional stored results, or look-up tables, that have cylindrical symmetry about the linear array. The method is well suited to cylindrically scanned linear arrays but is equally valid for linear arrays scanned to form planar or arbitrary apertures. This paper describes the CFBP algorithm and validates its performance using simulated data.
Active microwave and millimeter-wave imaging is commonly used for security screening at airport checkpoints and other protected facilities. This paper explores an imaging system concept that may improve screening convenience, reduce cost, and enable alternative operational concepts by allowing a person to walk naturally through the system. Millimeter-wave imaging systems require data to be acquired over a 2D spatial aperture to form a high-resolution image. This requirement is usually met using mechanical scanners or large antenna arrays that provide a 2D aperture and provide strict control over the position of the array in relation to a motionless target. The new concept explored in this paper replaces the mechanical scan with motion of the passenger. The complex motion of the passenger is expected to be optically tracked as he or she passes by stationary linear vertical millimeter-wave arrays and can be modeled using skeletal animation. Multiple linear arrays illuminate the passenger from a wide variety of angles to provide full coverage of the body. The radar data are then correlated with the skeletal animation model by employing generalized synthetic aperture focusing or back-projection techniques. These methods accurately reconstruct the image by integrating the measured response multiplied by the conjugate of the expected response from a point scatterer anywhere within a 3D image volume. This process yields an optimally focused image and can be applied to situations involving complex target motion. This paper describes this concept in detail and provides numerous simulation-based imaging results to explore the effectiveness of the proposed methods.
Millimeter-wave (MMW) imaging systems require high resolution and spurious free dynamic range (SFDR) to produce images with low artifacts. In these systems, lateral resolution is determined by the center frequency and the ratio of the aperture size to the distance to the target. The downrange resolution is determined by the system bandwidth; for very fine downrange resolution of a target, or material layers/discontinuities, the bandwidth must be very broad. Additionally, the response over the bandwidth must be measured very rapidly to support high speed acquisition over large apertures. A voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) is a standard means of generating the ultra-broadband frequency chirp. This paper investigates the use of a broadband VCO for use in MMW imaging systems, a linear-phase calibration technique, and digital-to-analog converter (DAC) parameter considerations for controlling the VCO.
Active millimeter-wave imaging is in widespread use for security screening and other applications. The Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) has developed a variety of microwave and millimeter-wave imaging systems and technology, including the cylindrical imaging technology that forms the basis of the L3/Leidos ProVision system. Since 2016, PNNL has been actively participating in a working group that is developing a proposed American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard (N42.59) that will be used to evaluate and verify performance of active millimeterwave imaging systems used for security screening of humans. The standard is developing image quality tools (IQTs) that will be used to assess a variety of imaging metrics, such as lateral resolution, contrast, and depth resolution. Depth resolution is vital for high-performance microwave and millimeter-wave imaging because it enables precise focusing over a full 3D volume, and allows for differentiation of reflections from multiple surfaces, such as a layer of clothing over the human body. In this paper, depth resolution is analyzed using theoretical simulations and experimental 3D imaging studies. Presented results examine depth resolution using IQTs developed from a thin partially transparent film placed in front of a metallic surface, creating reflections that are laterally aligned and at variable separation. Coherence between these reflections is investigated as it complicates the interpretation of the imaging results.
Active millimeter and microwave imaging techniques can be used to create a high-resolution 3D image volume of a target’s reflectivity. Millimeter-wave imaging is commonly used for personnel security screening and numerous other applications. Backprojection based image reconstruction techniques form a 3D complex-valued volume. The complex-valued volume is commonly reduced to a real-valued volume by taking the magnitude. For anomaly detection and cross image registration of an object it is beneficial to generate an accurate representation of an object’s surface. Extracting a smooth and accurate surface from a magnitude only image is challenging. One difficulty is the magnitude image has limited resolution in the depth direction which normally limits precision to a moderate fraction of the depth resolution. Another difficulty is that the magnitude of the image depends heavily on the geometry and orientation of the object being imaged. The phase information in a complex-valued image volume provides a means to decouple the magnitude of the image from the geometry of an object and provide precision much finer than the depth resolution would indicate. This enables the generation of a smooth and accurate point cloud representation of the surface of an imaged object. A method to extract a point cloud from the phase information in a 3D complex-valued millimeter-wave image volume is developed and results with simulated and experimental data are presented
Active three-dimensional (3D) microwave and millimeter-wave imaging techniques have been extensively developed for concealed threat detection at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), most notably the cylindrical millimeterwave imaging method currently in use for airport screening. Typically, a linear array is mechanically scanned over a cylindrical or planar aperture in order to form a high-resolution 3D image. A linear array mounted on a low-cost encoderdriven rail system was desired for rapid data collection and evaluation of concealed threat detection on a stationary target. A rail system to sweep out a planar aperture was quickly developed, however, due to the low-cost implementation of the rail system and encoder, resulting images were lower quality than expected. It was determined that the position information provided by the rail system encoder was not accurate enough to generate an image of the desired quality. Instead of using a traditional encoder wheel with the rail system, optical motion tracking was used to record 3D position information of the linear array synced with the radar as it was manually scanned over a nominally planar aperture. While optical motion tracking can provide position information with sub-millimeter level accuracy, it doesn’t guarantee that the scanned aperture is strictly planar or uniformly sampled. Reconstruction techniques necessary to incorporate 3D position information and compensate for an irregular imaging aperture are developed. Experimental results showing the benefit of precise optical motion tracking for a manually scanned linear array are presented.
The Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) has recently developed an active 3D microwave/millimeter-wave shoe scanner. This system is designed to detect threats concealed within the soles of common footwear. The system was designed in response to the security incident involving Richard Reid, known as the “Shoe Bomber”. The system operates over the 10-40 GHz frequency range. Waves in this band readily pass through common shoe materials, such as leather, rubber, plastics, foams, and synthetic and natural cloth materials. The shoe scanner system consists of a linear array positioned underneath a low loss dielectric window that the person is directed to stand upon. The linear array is positioned so the antenna propagation is vertical, and the array axis is horizontal across the width of the shoes. A linear mechanical scan translates the arrays along the length of the shoes. A frequency-modulated continuous wave (FM-CW) transceiver is used to collect the signal scattered from the scene. The data collected from the system is fully 3D covering two spatial and one frequency dimensions. The system presents several challenges for efficient image reconstruction, including the dielectric window, multi-row linear arrays, and focusing close to the antenna elements. The dielectric window presents a significant challenge for image reconstruction since the waves will travel through an inhomogeneous layered media. In this paper, an efficient back-projection reconstruction algorithm is presented that overcomes these challenges. Experimental imaging results are shown that demonstrate high-resolution imaging performance for this new scanner.
Active three-dimensional (3D) microwave and millimeter-wave imaging is useful for a variety of applications including concealed weapon detection, in-wall imaging, non-destructive evaluation, and others. High-resolution imaging is usually performed using a fixed two-dimensional planar or cylindrical aperture that is defined using a two-dimensional array or precise mechanical scanning of a transceiver or sequentially-switched linear antenna array. For some applications, it is more convenient to manually translate a linear array over the scene of interest, or equivalently, move the target in front of the linear array to scan an effective aperture. Manually scanning the array or target creates several challenges for accurately focusing, or reconstructing, an image of the target. The motion of the array or target must be known accurately, typically with precision of 0.05-0.1 wavelengths. Additionally, the image reconstruction algorithm needs to be able to compensate for aperture shapes which are highly non-uniformly sampled, and which are not of a specific canonical shape such as planar or cylindrical. This paper explores high-resolution 3D microwave imaging of a moving target by using optical motion capture to track the moving target and develops highly versatile image reconstruction techniques that account for the irregular motion. Several experimental results are shown for moving targets in front of a fixed linear array.
The Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) is engaged in the development of next-generation active cylindrical and planar millimeter-wave imaging systems that strive to have higher resolution and improved image fidelity relative to currently deployed systems. The principal method to evaluate the performance of potential imaging system designs has been to emulate them using single-channel radar transceivers that were raster-scanned using x-y scanners for planar scans, or an x-y scanner coupled to a turntable for cylindrical scans. This method has several drawbacks, including the necessity of having an available millimeter-wave transceiver and limiting scanning configurations to quasi-monostatic, uniformly sampled configurations. Modern designs may incorporate sparse, multi-static, sampling strategies, and may deviate from uniform sampling schemes. High-performance computers now allow realistic simulation of many imaging configurations, eliminating the need for such laboratory scanning to evaluate potential designs. In this paper, the use of a commercially-available shooting-and-bouncing-rays simulator for these applications is described and demonstrated with a number of imaging results.
The identification followed by avoidance or removal of explosive hazards in past and/or present conflict zones is a serious threat for both civilian and military personnel. This is a challenging task as variability exists with respect to the objects, their environment and emplacement context, to name a few factors. A goal is the development of automatic or human-in-the-loop sensor technologies that leverage signal processing, data fusion and machine learning. Herein, we explore the detection of side attack explosive hazards (SAEHs) in three dimensional voxel space radar via different shallow and deep convolutional neural network (CNN) architectures. Dimensionality reduction is performed by using multiple projected images versus the raw three dimensional voxel data, which leads to noteworthy savings in input size and associated network hyperparameters. Last, we explore the accuracy and interpretation of solutions learned via random versus intelligent network weight initialization. Experiments are provided on a U.S. Army data set collected over different times, weather conditions, target types and concealments. Preliminary results indicate that deep learning can perform as good as, if not better, than a skilled domain expert, even in light of limited training data with a class imbalance.
Recently, the Stalker system has been developed as a high-resolution three-dimensional radar imaging system for the detection of concealed roadside explosive hazards. This system has shown considerable capability in distinguishing between true targets and false alarms using conventional processing techniques such as RX filtering on 2D projections of the data. In this paper, we develop an extension of these methods for use with 3D radar imagery. We show several different prescreening approaches for automatically marking potential target locations and describe an evaluation program called the Tiger scorer. We tested our approach on data collected at an arid U.S. Army test site.
Explosive hazards in current and former conflict zones are a serious threat to both civilians and soldiers alike. Significant effort has been dedicated to identifying sensors, algorithms and fusion strategies to detect such threats. However, a challenging aspect of the field is that we are not necessarily at war with the threats (objects). Instead, we are at conflict with people who are constantly evolving their strategies of attack along with their preferred threat. One such method of threat delivery is side attack explosive ballistics (SAEB). In this article, we explore different 3D voxel-space radar signal processing methods for SAEB detection on a U.S. Army provided vehicle-mounted platform. In particular, we explore the fusion of a matched filter (MF) and size contrast filter (SCF). Clustering is applied to the fused result and heuristics are used to reduce the systems false alarm rate. Performance is assessed in the context of receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves on data from a U.S. Army test site containing multiple target and clutter types, levels of concealment and times of day.
The Pacific Northwest National Laboratory has developed three-dimensional holographic (synthetic aperture) radar imaging techniques and systems for a wide variety of near-field applications. These applications include radar crosssection (RCS) imaging, personnel screening, standoff concealed weapon detection, concealed threat detection, throughbarrier imaging, ground penetrating radar (GPR), and non-destructive evaluation (NDE). Sequentially-switched linear arrays are used for many of these systems to enable high-speed data acquisition and 3-D imaging. In this paper, the techniques and systems will be described along with imaging results that demonstrate the utility of near-field 3-D radar imaging for these compelling applications.
KEYWORDS: Interference (communication), Oscillators, Imaging systems, Signal to noise ratio, Transceivers, Near field, Antennas, 3D image processing, Radar imaging, Radar
Near field radar imaging systems are used for demanding security applications including concealed weapon detection in airports and other high-security venues. Despite the near-field operation, phase noise and thermal noise can limit performance in several ways. Practical imaging systems can employ arrays with low gain antennas and relatively large signal distribution networks that have substantial losses which limit transmit power and increase the effective noise figure of the receiver chain, resulting in substantial thermal noise. Phase noise can also limit system performance. The signal coupled from transmitter to receiver is much larger than expected target signals. Phase noise from this coupled signal can set the system noise floor if the oscillator is too noisy. Frequency modulated continuous wave (FM-CW) radar transceivers used in short range systems are relatively immune to the effects of the coupled phase noise due to range correlation effects. This effect can reduce the phase-noise floor such that it is below the thermal noise floor for moderate performance oscillators. Phase noise is also manifested in the range response around bright targets, and can cause smaller targets to be obscured. Noise in synthetic aperture imaging systems is mitigated by the processing gain of the system. In this paper, the effects of thermal noise, phase noise, and processing gain are analyzed in the context of a near field 3-D FM-CW imaging radar as might be used for concealed weapon detection. In addition to traditional frequency domain analysis, a time-domain simulation is employed to graphically demonstrate the effect of these noise sources on a fast-chirping FM-CW system.
Sequentially-switched linear arrays are an enabling technology for a number of near-field microwave imaging applications. Electronically sequencing along the array axis followed by mechanical scanning along an orthogonal axis allows dense sampling of a two-dimensional aperture in near real-time. The Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) has developed this technology for several applications including concealed weapon detection, groundpenetrating radar, and non-destructive inspection and evaluation. These techniques form three-dimensional images by scanning a diverging beam swept frequency transceiver over a two-dimensional aperture and mathematically focusing or reconstructing the data into three-dimensional images. Recently, a sparse multi-static array technology has been developed that reduces the number of antennas required to densely sample the linear array axis of the spatial aperture. This allows a significant reduction in cost and complexity of the linear-array-based imaging system. The sparse array has been specifically designed to be compatible with Fourier-Transform-based image reconstruction techniques; however, there are limitations to the use of these techniques, especially for extreme near-field operation. In the extreme near-field of the array, back-projection techniques have been developed that account for the exact location of each transmitter and receiver in the linear array and the 3-D image location. In this paper, the sparse array technique will be described along with associated Fourier-Transform-based and back-projection-based image reconstruction algorithms. Simulated imaging results are presented that show the effectiveness of the sparse array technique along with the merits and weaknesses of each image reconstruction approach.
We describe the design and phenomenology imaging results of a fully polarimetric W-band millimeter wave (MMW) radiometer developed by Pacific Northwest National Laboratory for wide-area search. Operating from 92–94 GHz, the W-band radiometer employs a Dicke switching heterodyne design isolating the horizontal and vertical mm-wave components with 40 dB of polarization isolation. Design results are presented for both infinite conjugate off-axis parabolic and finite conjugate off-axis elliptical fore-optics using optical ray tracing and diffraction calculations. The received linear polarizations are down-converted to a microwave frequency band and recombined in a phase-shifting network to produce all six orthogonal polarization states of light simultaneously, which are used to calculate the Stokes parameters for display and analysis. The resulting system performance produces a heterodyne receiver noise equivalent delta temperature (NEDT) of less than 150m Kelvin. The radiometer provides novel imaging capability by producing all four of the Stokes parameters of light, which are used to create imagery based on the polarization states associated with unique scattering geometries and their interaction with the down welling MMW energy. The polarization states can be exploited in such a way that man-made objects can be located and highlighted in a cluttered scene using methods such as image comparison, color encoding of Stokes parameters, multivariate image analysis, and image fusion with visible and infrared imagery. We also present initial results using a differential imaging approach used to highlight polarization features and reduce common-mode noise. Persistent monitoring of a scene using the polarimetric passive mm-wave technique shows great promise for anomaly detection caused by human activity.
We present a novel architecture based upon a Dicke-switched heterodyne radiometer architecture employing two identical input sections consisting of horn and orthomode transducer to detect the difference between the horizontal (H) and vertical (V) polarization states of two separate object patches imaged by the radiometer. We have constructed and described previously a fully polarimetric W-band passive millimeter wave imager constructed to study the phenomenology of anomaly detection using polarimetric image exploitation of the Stokes images. The heterodyne radiometer used a PIN diode switch between the input millimeter wave energy and that of a reference load in order to eliminate the effects of component drifts and to reduce the effects of 1/f noise. The differential approach differs from our previous work by comparing H and V polarization states detected by each of two input horns instead of a reference load to form signals ΔH and ΔV from adjacent paired object patches. This novel imaging approach reduces common mode noise and enhances detection of small changes between the H and V polarization states of two object patches, now given as difference terms of the fully polarimetric radiometer. We present the theory of operation, initial proof of concept experimental results, and extension of the differential radiometer to a system with a binocular fore optics that allow adjustment of the convergence or shear of the object patches as viewed by the differential polarimetric imager.
This paper describes a study performed at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory which investigated the use of active millimeter-wave radar imaging to perform threat detection in non-divested shoes. The purpose of this study was to determine the optimal imaging system configuration for performing this type of task. While active millimeter-wave imaging systems have proven to be effective for personnel screening, the phenomenology associated with imaging within a heterogeneous medium, such as a shoe, dictates limits for imaging system parameters. Scattering, defocusing, and multipath artifacts are significantly exaggerated due to the high contrast index of refraction associated with the boundary at the air and shoe interface. Where higher center-frequency and bandwidth result in much improved lateral and range resolution in the body scanning application, smaller wavelengths are significantly defocused after penetrating the sole of the shoe. Increased bandwidth, however, is essential for the shoe scanning application as well. Obtaining fine enough depth resolution is critical in separating the scattering contribution of each layer of the shoes in range to isolate possible threats embedded within the sole. In this paper, the results of a study to optimize the following imaging system parameters are presented: antenna illumination beamwidth, antenna polarization, transceiver bandwidth, and physical scanning geometry.
Active millimeter-wave imaging is currently being used for personnel screening at airports and other high-security facilities. The cylindrical imaging techniques used in the deployed systems are based on licensed technology developed at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. The cylindrical and a related planar imaging technique form three-dimensional images by scanning a diverging beam swept frequency transceiver over a two-dimensional aperture and mathematically focusing or reconstructing the data into three-dimensional images of the person being screened. The resolution, clothing penetration, and image illumination quality obtained with these techniques can be significantly enhanced through the selection of the aperture size, antenna beamwidth, center frequency, and bandwidth. The lateral resolution can be improved by increasing the center frequency, or it can be increased with a larger antenna beamwidth. The wide beamwidth approach can significantly improve illumination quality relative to a higher frequency system. Additionally, a wide antenna beamwidth allows for operation at a lower center frequency resulting in less scattering and attenuation from the clothing. The depth resolution of the system can be improved by increasing the bandwidth. Utilization of extremely wide bandwidths of up to 30 GHz can result in depth resolution as fine as 5 mm. This wider bandwidth operation may allow for improved detection techniques based on high range resolution. In this paper, the results of an extensive imaging study that explored the advantages of using extremely wide beamwidth and bandwidth are presented, primarily for 10-40 GHz frequency band.
As millimeter-wave arrays become available, off-axis imaging performance of the fore optics increases in importance
due to the relatively large physical extent of the arrays. Typically, simple optical telescope designs are adapted to
millimeter-wave imaging but single-mirror spherical or classic conic designs cannot deliver adequate image quality
except near the optical axis. Since millimeter-wave designs are quasi-optical, optical ray tracing and commercial design
software can be used to optimize designs to improve off-axis imaging as well as minimize cross-polarization. Methods
that obey the Dragone-Mizuguchi condition for the design of reflective millimeter-wave telescopes with low cross-polarization
also provide additional degrees of freedom that offer larger fields of view than possible with single-reflector
designs. Dragone's graphical design method does not lend itself readily to computer-based optical design approaches,
but subsequent authors expanded on Dragone's geometric design approach with analytic expressions that describe the
location, shape, off-axis height and tilt of the telescope elements that satisfy Dragone's design rules and can be used as a
first-order design for subsequent computer-based design and optimization. We investigate two design variants that obey
the Dragone-Mizuguchi conditions that exhibit ultra-low cross-polarization and a large diffraction-limited field of view
well suited to millimeter-wave imaging arrays.
Millimeter-wave (mm-wave) imaging is rapidly gaining acceptance as a security tool to augment conventional metal
detectors and baggage x-ray systems for passenger screening at airports and other secured facilities. This acceptance
indicates that the technology has matured; however, many potential improvements can yet be realized. The authors have
developed a number of techniques over the last several years including novel image reconstruction and display
techniques, polarimetric imaging techniques, array switching schemes, and high-frequency high-bandwidth techniques.
All of these may improve the performance of new systems; however, some of these techniques will increase the cost and
complexity of the mm-wave security portal imaging systems. Reducing this cost may require the development of novel
array designs. In particular, RF photonic methods may provide new solutions to the design and development of the
sequentially switched linear mm-wave arrays that are the key element in the mm-wave portal imaging systems. Highfrequency,
high-bandwidth designs are difficult to achieve with conventional mm-wave electronic devices, and RF
photonic devices may be a practical alternative. In this paper, the mm-wave imaging techniques developed at PNNL are
reviewed and the potential for implementing RF photonic mm-wave array designs is explored.
We present the theory, design, and experimental results obtained from a scanning passive W-band fully polarimetric
imager. Passive millimeter-wave imaging offers persistent day/nighttime imaging and the ability to penetrate dust,
clouds and other obscurants, including clothing and dry soil. The single-pixel scanning imager includes both far-field
and near-field fore-optics for investigation of polarization phenomena. Using both fore-optics, a variety of scenes
including natural and man-made objects was imaged and these results are presented showing the utility of polarimetric
imaging for anomaly detection. Analysis includes conventional Stokes-parameter based approaches as well as
multivariate image analysis methods.
We present experimental results obtained from a scanning passive W-band fully polarimetric imager. Passive millimeter
wave imaging offers persistent day/nighttime imaging and the ability to penetrate dust, clouds and other obscurants, as
well as thin layers of clothing and even dry soil. The selection of the W-band atmospheric window at 94 GHz offers a
compromise as there is sufficient angular resolution for imaging applications using modestly-sized reflectors appropriate
for mobile as well as fixed location applications. The imager is based upon an F/2.1 off-axis parabolic reflector that
exhibits -34 dB of cross polarization suppression. The heterodyne radiometer produces a 6 GHz IF with 4 GHz of
bandwidth resulting in an NEDT of < 200 mK. Polarimetric imaging reveals the presence of man-made objects due to
their typically anisotropic nature and the interaction of these objects with incident millimeter wave radiation. The
phenomenology studies were undertaken to determine the richest polarimetric signals to use for exploitation. In addition
to a conventional approach to polarimetric image analysis in which the Stokes I, Q, U, and V images were formed and
displayed, we present an alternative method for polarimetric image exploitation based upon multivariate image analysis
(MIA). MIA uses principal component analysis (PCA) and 2D scatter or score plots to identify various pixel classes in
the image compared with the more conventional scene-based image analysis approaches. Multivariate image
decomposition provides a window into the complementary interplay between spatial and statistical correlations
contained in the data.
The cylindrical millimeter-wave imaging technique, developed at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) and
commercialized by L-3 Communications/Safeview in the ProVision system, is currently being deployed in airports and
other high-security locations to meet person-borne weapon and explosive detection requirements. While this system is
efficient and effective in its current form, there are a number of areas in which the detection performance may be
improved through the use of other reconstruction algorithms and sensing configurations. PNNL and Northeastern
University (NEU) have teamed together to investigate higher-order imaging artifacts produced by the current cylindrical
millimeter-wave imaging technique using full-wave forward modeling and laboratory experimentation. Based on
imaging results and scattered-field visualizations using the full-wave forward model, a new imaging system is proposed.
The new system combines a multistatic sensor configuration with the generalized synthetic aperture focusing technique
(GSAFT). Initial results show an improved ability to image in areas of the body where target shading, specular
reflections, and higher-order reflections occur.
Cylindrical millimeter-wave imaging systems and technology have been under development at the Pacific Northwest
National Laboratory (PNNL) for several years. This technology has been commercialized, and systems are currently
being deployed widely across the United States and internationally. These systems are effective at screening for
concealed items of all types; however, new sensor designs, image reconstruction techniques, and image rendering
algorithms could potentially improve performance. At PNNL, a number of specific techniques have been developed
recently to improve cylindrical imaging methods including wideband techniques, combining data from full 360-degree
scans, polarimetric imaging techniques, calibration methods, and 3-D data visualization techniques. Many of these
techniques exploit the three-dimensionality of the cylindrical imaging technique by optimizing the depth resolution of
the system and using this information to enhance detection. Other techniques, such as polarimetric methods, exploit
scattering physics of the millimeter-wave interaction with concealed targets on the body. In this paper, calibration,
reconstruction, and three-dimensional rendering techniques will be described that optimize the depth information in
these images and the display of the images to the operator.
The sub-millimeter (sub-mm) wave frequency band from 300 - 1000 GHz is currently being developed for standoff
concealed weapon detection imaging applications. This frequency band is of interest due to the unique combination of
high resolution and clothing penetration. The Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) is currently developing a
350 GHz, active, wideband, three-dimensional, radar imaging system to evaluate the feasibility of active sub-mm
imaging for standoff detection. Standoff concealed weapon and explosive detection is a pressing national and
international need for both civilian and military security, as it may allow screening at safer distances than portal
screening techniques. PNNL has developed a prototype active wideband 350 GHz radar imaging system based on a
wideband, heterodyne, frequency-multiplier-based transceiver system coupled to a quasi-optical focusing system and
high-speed rotating conical scanner. This prototype system operates at ranges up to 10+ meters, and can acquire an
image in 10 - 20 seconds, which is fast enough to scan cooperative personnel for concealed weapons. The wideband
operation of this system provides accurate ranging information, and the images obtained are fully three-dimensional.
During the past year, several improvements to the system have been designed and implemented, including increased
imaging speed using improved balancing techniques, wider bandwidth, and improved image processing techniques. In
this paper, the imaging system is described in detail and numerous imaging results are presented.
A prototype active wideband 350 GHz imaging system has been developed to address the urgent need for standoff
concealed-weapon detection. This system is based on a wideband, heterodyne, frequency-multiplier-based transceiver
system coupled to a quasi-optical focusing system and high-speed conical scanner. This system is able to quickly scan
personnel for concealed weapons. Additionally, due to the wideband operation, this system provides accurate ranging
information, and the images obtained are fully three-dimensional. Waves in the microwave, millimeter-wave, and
terahertz (3 GHz to 1 THz) frequency bands are able to penetrate many optical obscurants, and can be used to form the
basis of high-resolution imaging systems. Waves in the sub-millimeter-wave band (300 GHz to 1 THz) are particularly
interesting for standoff concealed-weapon detection at ranges of 5 - 20+ meters, due to their unique combination of high
resolution and clothing penetration. The Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) has previously developed
portal screening systems that operate at the lower end of the millimeter-wave frequency range around 30 GHz. These
systems are well suited for screening within portals; however, increasing the range of these systems would dramatically
reduce the resolution due to diffraction at their relatively long wavelength. In this paper, the standoff 350 GHz imaging
system is described in detail and numerous imaging results are presented.
The Transportation Security Administration (TSA) is presently deploying millimeter-wave whole body scanners at over
20 airports in the United States. Threats that may be concealed on a person are displayed to the security operator of this
scanner. "Passenger privacy is ensured through the anonymity of the image. The officer attending the passenger cannot
view the image, and the officer viewing the image is remotely located and cannot see the passenger. Additionally, the
image cannot be stored, transmitted or printed and is deleted immediately after being viewed. Finally, the facial area of
the image has been blurred to further ensure privacy."
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) originated research into this novel security technology which has been
independently commercialized by L-3 Communications, SafeView, Inc. PNNL continues to perform fundamental
research into improved software techniques which are applicable to the field of holographic security screening
technology. This includes performing significant research to remove human features from the imagery. Both physical
and software imaging techniques have been employed. The physical imaging techniques include polarization diversity
illumination and reception, dual frequency implementation, and high frequency imaging at 100 GHz. This paper will
focus on a software privacy technique using a dual surface dielectric depth detector method.
Imaging in the sub-millimeter wave range of 300 - 1000 GHz is useful for a variety of applications including security
screening, imaging through obscurations, and non-destructive evaluation. Waves in this frequency range have
wavelengths ranging from 0.3 to 1.0 mm and are able to penetrate many optical obscurants. The ability to form high-resolution
images that penetrate clothing makes imaging in this frequency range particularly interesting for personnel
security screening at standoff distances. The Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) has previously developed
portal screening systems that operate at the lower end of the millimeter-wave frequency range around 30 GHz. These
systems are well suited for screening within portals and can achieve resolution of about 5 mm at ranges of less than 1
meter. However, increasing the range of these systems would dramatically reduce the resolution due to diffraction at
their relatively long wavelength. Operation at much higher frequencies, for example 350 GHz, will enable an order of
magnitude improvement of the resolution at a given range, while still achieving adequate clothing penetration. PNNL's
portal imaging systems have relied on wavefront reconstruction, or holographic, imaging techniques to mathematically
focus the imagery. In the sub-millimeter-wave, this may not always be practical due to sensitivity of the system to slight
changes in the position of the imaging target during data collection. In this case, physical focusing using lenses or
reflectors may be more practical. In this paper, we examine the effectiveness of imaging near 350 GHz for security
screening applications. Imaging results are presented using the holographic wavefront reconstruction technique, as well
as a focused reflector-based imaging system.
At Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, wideband antenna arrays have been successfully used to
reconstruct three-dimensional images at microwave and millimeter-wave frequencies. Applications
of this technology have included portal monitoring, through-wall imaging, and weapons detection.
Fractal antennas have been shown to have wideband characteristics due to their self-similar nature
(that is, their geometry is replicated at different scales). They further have advantages in providing
good characteristics in a compact configuration. We discuss the application of fractal antennas for
holographic imaging. Simulation results will be presented.
Rectennas are a specific class of antennas in which a received signal drives a nonlinear junction and
is retransmitted at either a harmonic frequency or a demodulated frequency. Applications include
tagging and tracking objects with a uniquely-responding antenna. It is of interest to consider fractal
rectenna because the self-similarity of fractal antennas tends to make them have similar resonance
behavior at multiples of the primary resonance. Thus, fractal antennas can be suited for applications
in which a signal is reradiated at a harmonic frequency. Simulations will be discussed with this
application in mind.
Over the last 15 years, the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory has performed significant research and development
activities to enhance the state of the art of holographic radar imaging systems to be used at security checkpoints for
screening people for concealed threats hidden under their garments. These enhancement activities included
improvements to privacy techniques to remove human features and providing automatic detection of body-worn
concealed threats. The enhanced privacy and detection methods used both physical and software imaging techniques.
The physical imaging techniques included polarization-diversity illumination and reception, dual-frequency
implementation, and high-frequency imaging at 60 GHz. Software imaging techniques to enhance the privacy of the
person under surveillance included extracting concealed threat artifacts from the imagery to automatically detect the
threat. This paper will focus on physical privacy techniques using dual-frequency implementation.
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory researchers have been at the forefront of developing innovative screening
systems to enhance security and a novel imaging system to provide custom-fit clothing using holographic radar imaging
techniques. First-of-a-kind cylindrical holographic imaging systems have been developed to screen people at security
checkpoints for the detection of concealed, body worn, non-metallic threats such as plastic and liquid explosives, knifes
and contraband. Another embodiment of this technology is capable of obtaining full sized body measurements in near
real time without the person under surveillance removing their outer garments. Radar signals readily penetrate clothing
and reflect off the water in skin. This full body measurement system is commercially available for best fitting ready to
wear clothing, which was the first "biometric" application for this technology. One compelling feature of this
technology for security biometric applications is that it can see effectively through disguises, appliances and body hair.
Wideband millimeter-wave imaging techniques and systems have been developed at Pacific Northwest National
Laboratory (PNNL) for concealed weapon detection and other applications. These techniques evolved from singlefrequency
millimeter-wave holographic imaging methods to wideband three-dimensional planar and cylindrical
techniques and systems. The single-frequency holographic method was derived from optical and ultrasonic holography
techniques. Speckle is highly significant in this case, and is caused by constructive and destructive interference from
multiple scattering locations or depths within a single resolution cell. The wideband three-dimensional techniques
developed at PNNL significantly reduce the speckle effect through the use of high depth resolution obtained from the
wide bandwidth of the illumination. For these techniques, speckle can still be significant in some cases and affect image
quality. In this paper, we explore the situations in which speckle occurs and its relationship to lateral and depth
resolution. This will be accomplished through numerical simulation and demonstrated in actual imaging results.
Speckle may also play a significant role in altering reflection spectra in wideband terahertz spectra. Reflection from
rough surfaces will generate speckle, which will result in significant variation in the reflection spectrum as measured
over very wide bandwidths. This effect may make if difficult to interpret spectral absorption features from general
reflectance data. In this paper, physical optics numerical simulation techniques will be used to model the reflection from
arbitrary random surfaces and explore the effect of the surface on the reflection spectra and reconstructed image.
Laboratory imaging and numerical modeling results in the millimeter-wave through the terahertz frequency ranges are presented.
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) has recently recorded the infrared (IR) and far-infrared (FIR, sometimes
also called the terahertz, THz) spectral signatures of four common explosives in the condensed phase. The signatures of
RDX, PETN, TNT and Tetryl were recorded both in the infrared and the THz domains, using Fourier transform infrared
(FTIR) spectroscopy. Samples consisted of thin films and were made by depositing and subsequent evaporation of an
acetone-explosive mixture. The complete spectrum spanned the range from 4,000 to 8 cm-1 at 2.0 cm-1 spectral
resolution. Preliminary results in the infrared agree with those of previous workers, while the THz signatures are one
order of magnitude weaker than the strongest IR bands.
The awareness of terrorists covertly transporting chemical warfare (CW) and biological warfare (BW) agents into government, military, and civilian facilities to harm the occupants has increased dramatically since the attacks of 9/11. Government and civilian security personnel have a need for innovative surveillance technology that can rapidly detect these lethal agents, even when they are hidden away in sealed containers and concealed either under clothing or in hand-carried items such as mailed packages or handbags. Sensor technology that detects BW and CW agents in mail or sealed containers carried under the clothing are under development. One promising sensor technology presently under development to detect these threats is active millimeter-wave holographic radar imaging, which can readily image concealed items behind paper, cardboard, and clothing. Feasibility imaging studies at frequencies greater than 40 GHz have been conducted to determine whether simulated biological or chemical agents concealed in mail packages or under clothing could be detected using this extremely high-frequency imaging technique. The results of this imaging study will be presented in this paper.
The wideband microwave or millimeter-wave cylindrical imaging technique has been developed at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) for several applications including concealed weapon detection and automated body measurement for apparel fitting. This technique forms a fully-focused, diffraction-limited, three-dimensional image of the person or imaging target by scanning an inward-directed vertical array around the person or imaging target. The array is switched electronically to sequence across the array at high-speed, so that a full 360 degree mechanical scan over the cylindrical aperture can occur in 2-10 seconds. Wideband, coherent reflection data from each antenna position are recorded in a computer and subsequently reconstructed using an FFT-based image reconstruction algorithm developed at PNNL. The cylindrical scanning configuration is designed to optimize the illumination of the target and minimize non-returns due to specular reflection of the illumination away from the array. In this paper, simulated modeling data are used to explore imaging issues that affect the cylindrical imaging technique. Physical optics scattering simulations are used to model realistic returns from curved surfaces to determine the extent to which specular reflection affects the signal return and subsequent image reconstruction from these surfaces. This is a particularly important issue for the body measurement application. Also, an artifact in the imaging technique, referred to as "circular convolution aliasing" is discussed including methods to reduce or eliminate it. Numerous simulated and laboratory measured imaging results are presented.
The detection and interdiction of biological and chemical warfare agents at point-of-entry military, government, and civilian facilities remains a high priority for security personnel. Commercial personnel and mail screening technologies for these harmful agents are still being developed and improved upon to meet all security client requirements. Millimeter-wave holographic imaging technology developed at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory is an ideal sensor to interrogate objects concealed behind low dielectric barriers such as paper, cardboard, and clothing. It uses harmless millimeter waves to illuminate the object or person under surveillance. The waves penetrate through the low dielectric barrier and either reflects off or pass through the hidden object, depending on its material dielectric properties. The reflected signals are digitized and sent to high-speed computers to form high-resolution, three-dimensional (3-D) images. Feasibility imaging studies have been conducted to determine whether simulated biological or chemical agents concealed in mail packages or under clothing could be detected using holographic radar imaging techniques. The results of this study will be presented in this paper.
A novel polarimetric millimeter-wave imaging technique has been developed at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) for concealed weapon detection applications. Wideband millimeter-wave imaging systems developed at PNNL utilize low-power, coherent, millimeter-wave illumination in the 10-100 GHz range to form high-resolution images of personnel. Electromagnetic waves in these frequency ranges easily penetrate most clothing materials and are reflected from the body and any concealed items. Three-dimensional images are formed using computer image reconstruction algorithms developed to mathematically focus the received wavefronts scattered from the target. Circular polarimetric imaging can be employed to obtain additional information from the target. Circularly polarized waves incident on relatively smooth reflecting targets are typically reversed in their rotational handedness, e.g. left-hand circular polarization (LHCP) is reflected to become right-hand circular polarization (RHCP). An incident wave that is reflected twice (or any even number) of times prior to returning to the transceiver, has its handedness preserved. Sharp features such as wires and edges tend to return linear polarization, which can be considered to be a sum of both LHCP and RHCP. These characteristics can be exploited for personnel screening by allowing differentiation of smooth features, such as the body, and sharper features present in many concealed items. Additionally, imaging artifacts due to multipath can be identified and eliminated. Laboratory imaging results have been obtained in the 10-20 GHz frequency range and are presented in this paper.
Chemical detection using infrared hyperspectral imaging systems often is limited by the effects of variability of the scene background emissivity spectra and temperature. Additionally, the atmospheric up-welling and down-welling radiance and transmittance are difficult to estimate from the hyperspectral image data, and may vary across the image. In combination, these background variability effects are referred to as "clutter." A study has been undertaken at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory to determine the relative impact of atmospheric variability and background variability on the detection of trace chemical vapors. This study has analyzed Atmospheric Emitted Radiance Interferometer data to estimate fluctuations in atmospheric constituents. To allow separation of the effects of background and atmospheric variability, hyperspectral data was synthesized using large sets of simulated atmospheric spectra, measured background emissivity spectra, and measured high-resolution gas absorbance spectra. The atmosphere was simulated using FASCODE in which the constituent gas concentrations and temperatures were varied. These spectral sets were combined synthetically using a physics model to realize a statistical synthetic scene with a plume present in a portion of the image. Noise was added to the image with the level determined by a numerical model of the hyperspectral imaging instrument. The chemical detection performance was determined by applying a matched-filter estimator to both the on-plume and off-plume regions. The detected levels in the off-plume region were then used to determine the noise equivalent concentration path length (NECL), a measure of the chemical detection sensitivity. The NECL was estimated for numerous gases and for a variety of background and atmospheric conditions to determine the relative impact of instrument noise, background variability, and atmospheric variability.
Hyperspectral images in the long wave-infrared can be used for quantification of analytes in stack plumes. One approach uses eigenvectors of the off-plume covariance to develop models of the background that are employed in quantification. In this paper, it is shown that end members can be used in a similar way with the added advantage that the end members provide a simple approach to employ non-negativity constraints. A novel approach to end member extraction is used to extract from 14 to 53 factors from synthetic hyperspectral images. It is shown that the eigenvector and end member methods yield similar quantification performance and, as was seen previously, quantification error depends on net analyte signal.
Mismatch between the temperature of the spectra used in the estimator and the actual plume temperature was also studied. A simple model used spectra from three different temperatures to interpolate to an “observed” spectrum at the plume temperature. Using synthetic images, it is shown that temperature mismatch generally results in increases in quantification error. However, in some cases it caused an off-set of the model bias that resulted in apparent decreases in quantification error.
Full body, real-time, millimeter-wave imaging systems have been developed at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory for the detection of body-worn, concealed weapons and contraband at security checkpoints. These security systems employ methods derived from microwave holography techniques that utilize phase and amplitude information recorded over a two-dimensional aperture to reconstruct a focused image of the target. Millimeter-wave imaging is well suited for the detection of concealed weapons or other contraband carried on personnel, since millimeter waves are non-ionizing, readily penetrate common clothing material, and are reflected from the human body and any concealed items. In this paper, wide-bandwidth, three-dimensional, holographic microwave imaging techniques and a full-body, planar, millimeter-wave imaging system are described.
The small size, high power, promise of access to any wavelength between 3.5 and 16 microns, substantial tuning range about a chosen center wavelength, and general robustness of quantum cascade (QC) lasers provide opportunities for new approaches to ultra-sensitive chemical detection and other applications in the mid-wave infrared. PNNL is developing novel remote and sampling chemical sensing systems based on QC lasers, using QC lasers loaned by Lucent Technologies. In recent months laboratory cavity-enhanced sensing experiments have achieved absorption sensitivities of 8.5 x 10-11 cm-1 Hz-1/2, and the PNNL team has begun monostatic and bi-static frequency modulated, differential absorption lidar (FM DIAL) experiments at ranges of up to 2.5 kilometers. In related work, PNNL and UCLA are developing miniature QC laser transmitters with the multiplexed tunable wavelengths, frequency and amplitude stability, modulation characteristics, and power levels needed for chemical sensing and other applications. Current miniaturization concepts envision coupling QC oscillators, QC amplifiers, frequency references, and detectors with miniature waveguides and waveguide-based modulators, isolators, and other devices formed from chalcogenide or other types of glass. Significant progress has been made on QC laser stabilization and amplification, and on development and characterization of high-purity chalcogenide glasses, waveguide writing techniques, and waveguide metrology.
A novel millimeter-wave imaging technique has been developed for personnel surveillance applications, including the detection of concealed weapons, explosives, drugs, and other contraband material. Millimeter-waves are high-frequency radio waves in the frequency band of 30 - 300 GHz, and pose no health threat to humans at moderate power levels. These waves readily penetrate common clothing materials, and are reflected by the human body and by concealed items. The combined illumination cylindrical imaging concept consists of a vertical, high-resolution, millimeter-wave array of antennas which is scanned in a cylindrical manner about the person under surveillance. Using a computer, the data from this scan is mathematically reconstructed into a series of focused 3D images of the person. After reconstruction, the images are combined into a single high-resolution 3D image of the person under surveillance. This combined image is then rendered using 3D computer graphics techniques. The combined cylindrical illumination is critical as it allows the display of information from all angles. This is necessary because millimeter-waves do not penetrate the body. Ultimately, the images displayed to the operate will be icon-based to protect the privacy of the person being screened. Novel aspects of this technique include the cylindrical scanning concept and the image reconstruction algorithm, which was developed specifically for this imaging system. An engineering prototype based on this cylindrical imaging technique has been fabricated and tested. This work has been sponsored by the Federal Aviation Administration.
A novel personnel surveillance system has been developed for airport security to detect and identify threatening objects, which are concealed ont he human body. The main advantage of this system over conventional metal detectors is that non- metallic objects such as plastic explosives and plastic guns are detectable. This system is based on millimeter-wave array technology and a holographic imaging algorithm to provide surveillance images of objects hidden beneath clothing in near real-time. The privacy algorithm is based on image processing filters and artificial neural networks. The algorithm examines the millimeter-wave surveillance images to locate and segment the threats and place them on either a silhouette of the person or a wire-frame humanoid representation. In this way, all human features are removed from the final image and personal privacy is maintained. This system is ideally suited for mass transportation centers such as airport checkpoints that require high throughput rates. The system is currently under going evaluation. This paper reports on results from an earlier initial test of portions of the privacy algorithm that detect hidden plastic objects.
A novel personnel surveillance system has been developed to rapidly obtain 360 degree, full-body images of humans for the detection and identification of concealed threats. Detectable threats include weapons fabricated with metal, plastic, and ceramic, as well as explosive solids and liquids. This new system uses a cylindrical mechanical scanner to move a seven-foot, 384 element, Ka band (26 - 30 GHz) array circumferentially around a person in four to seven seconds. Low power millimeter-waves, which are nonionizing and not harmful to humans, are employed because they readily penetrate clothing barriers and reflect from concealed threats. The reflected waves provide information that is reconstructed into 3-D cylindrical holographic images with high-speed, digital signal processing (DSP) boards. This system is capable of displaying in an animation format eight, sixteen, thirty-two or sixty-four image frames at various aspect angles around the person under surveillance. This new prototype surveillance system is operational and is presently under laboratory testing and evaluation.
A novel cylindrical millimeter-wave imaging technique has been developed at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory for the detection of metallic and non-metallic concealed weapons. This technique uses a vertical array of millimeter- wave antennas which is mechanically swept around a person in a cylindrical fashion. The wideband millimeter-wave data is mathematically reconstructed into a series of high- resolution images of the person being screened. Clothing is relatively transparent to millimeter-wave illumination,whereas the human body and concealed items are reflective at millimeter wavelengths. Differences in shape and reflectivity are revealed in the images and allow a human operator to detect and identify concealed weapons. A full 360 degree scan is necessary to fully inspect a person for concealed items. The millimeter-wave images can be formed into a video animation sequence in which the person appears to rotate in front of a fixed illumination source.This is s convenient method for presenting the 3D image data for analysis. This work has been fully sponsored by the FAA. An engineering prototype based on the cylindrical imaging technique is presently under development. The FAA is currently opposed to presenting the image data directly to the operator due to personal privacy concerns. A computer automated system is desired to address this problem by eliminating operator viewing of the imagery.
Millimeter-wave holographic imaging techniques have recently been developed for personnel surveillance applications at airports and other high-security checkpoints. Millimeter- wave imaging is useful for this application since millimeter-waves easily pass through common clothing materials yet are reflected from the human body and any items concealed by clothing. This allows a high-resolution imaging system to form an image revealing items concealed on the person imaged. A prototype imaging system developed at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory uses a scanned linear array of millimeter-wave antennas to capture wideband millimeter-wave data in approximately one second. This data is then mathematically reconstructed to form a high- resolution 3D image of the person being scanned. Millimeter- wave imaging has been demonstrated to be effective for detecting concealed weapons on personnel. Another imaging technique which could be applied to the weapon detection problem is acoustic imaging. Like millimeter-waves, ultrasonic acoustic waves can also penetrate clothing, and can be used to form relatively high-resolution images which can reveal concealed weapons on personnel. Acoustic imaging results have been obtained using wideband holographic imaging techniques nearly identical to the imaging techniques used for millimeter-wave imaging. Preliminary imaging results at 50 kHz indicate that acoustic imaging can be used to penetrate some types of common clothing materials. Hard clothing materials, such as leather on vinyl, are essentially opaque to acoustic waves at 50 kHz. In this paper, millimeter-wave and acoustic wave imaging techniques are compared for their effectiveness and suitability in weapon detection imaging systems. Experimental results from both imaging modalities are shown.
A test and evaluation pilot study was conducted in January 1996 at Sea-Tac International Airport in Seattle, Washington to determine the initial effectiveness of the Millimeter- wave Holographic Weapons Surveillance System. This is a new personnel surveillance systems for the detection of concealed metal, plastic, and ceramic weapons and other threatening materials. Two different frequency bands were used in the study: Ku band and Ka band. Over 7000 Millimeter-wave (MM-wave) holographic images were obtained on 21 different models. The 7000 images were used to produce simulated real-time surveillance system videos. The videos were constructed by obtaining 36 images of the models at 10 degree increments for 360 degree coverage. A library of two hundred videos were produced for this pilot study: 100 at Ku band and 100 at Ka band. The videos contained either a threat or no threat. The threats were concealed at different locations on the models. Various innocuous items and different clothing combinations were also used n the construction of these videos. Twenty-nine certified Sea-Tac screeners were used in the initial test and evaluation of this new surveillance technology. Each screener viewed 160 MM-wave videos: 80 Ku band and 80 Ka band. The ratio of non- threat to threat videos per band was three to one. Test and evaluation software was developed to collect data from the screeners on-line for the type and location of threat detected. The primary measures of screener performance used to evaluate this new technology included, the probability of detection, the probability of a false alarm, measures of screener sensitivity and bias, and threat detection time.
A novel wideband millimeter-wave imaging system is presently being developed at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) that will allow rapid inspection of personnel for concealed explosives, handguns, or other threats. Millimeter-wavelength electromagnetic waves are effective for this application since they readily penetrate common clothing materials, while being partially reflected from the person under surveillance as well as any concealed items. To form an image rapidly, a linear array of 128 antennas is used to electronically scan over a horizontal aperture of 0.75 meters, while the linear array is mechanically swept over a vertical aperture of 2 meters. At each point over this 2-D aperture, coherent wideband data reflected from the target is gathered using wide-beamwidth antennas. The data is recorded coherently, and reconstructed (focused) using an efficient image reconstruction algorithm developed at PNNL. This algorithm works in the near-field of both the target and the scanned aperture and preserves the diffraction limited resolution of less than one-wavelength. The wide frequency bandwidth is used to provide depth resolution, which allows the image to be fully focused over a wide range of depths, resulting in a full 3-D image. This is not possible in a normal optical (or quasi-optical) imaging system. This system has been extensively tested using concealed metal and plastic weapons, and has recently been tested using real plastic explosives (C-4 and RDX) and simulated liquid explosives concealed on personnel. Millimeter-waves do not penetrate the human body, so it is necessary to view the subject from several angles in order to fully inspect for concealed weapons. Full animations containing 36 - 72 frames recorded from subjects rotated by 5 - 10 degrees, have been found to be extremely useful for rapid, effective inspection of personnel.
KEYWORDS: Holography, Imaging systems, Weapons, Extremely high frequency, Transceivers, Antennas, 3D image processing, Surveillance systems, Ka band, Ku band
A new wideband millimeter wave holographic imaging technqiue is under developement for use in concealed weapons detection system. This new wideband technique provides far superior images than single frequency holographic techniques on thick objects such as the human body. The wideband technique obtains fully focused images over a designated volume and provides excellent lateral and depth resolution. Using this method, a 3D volumetric hologram is gathered with a millimeter wave linear array, a mechanical scanner, and a sweep frequency tranceiver. The 3D volumetric hologram is then processed by high-speed computational processors to reconstruct the fully focused image. Two prototype wide band millimeter wave holographic arrays have been developed at the Pacific Northwest Laboratory. The two arrays consist of sequentially switched 2 by 37 Ku band (12.5-18 GHz) and 2 by 64 Ka band (26.5-40 GHz) systems which are coupled to high-speed sweep frequency heterodyne transceivers. The arrays are used to obtain volumetric imaging data at high speeds by electronically sequencing and frequency sweeping the array antennas along 1D while performing a mechanical scan along the other dimension. The current prototype system scans an aperture the size of a large human body in about one second. Extensive laboratory testing has been performed with people carrying various concealed weapons and innocuous items with both imaging arrays during the first quarter of 1995.
A novel wideband millimeter-wave imaging system concept has been developed at Pacific Northwest Laboratory for the detection of concelaed weapons. Millimeter-waves are ideal for personnel surveillance applications since they will readily penetrate common clothing materials, and have relatively short wavelengths allowing for high resolution imaging. This system concept is based on a circular synthetic aperture imaging technique, in which a circular aperture is scanned and an image is formed of the target located near the scanned aperture. A laboratory imaging system has been developed and results have been obtained using both mannequins and humans with concealed weapons. The technique is readily adaptable to a real- time imaging system using a relatively small number of transceivers and a relatively slow scanner speed.
A wideband millimeter-wave imaging technique has been developed by the Pacific Northwest Laboratory (PNL) for the detection of concealed weapons carried by personnel through high- security areas, such as airports. A practical airport system based on this technique should be capable of real-time image frame rate of 10 to 30 frames per second. This technique, similar to an extremely high-resolution radar system, actively probes the target with millimeter-waves and reconstructs an image from the backscattered phase and amplitude data. The primary goal of the system is the detection of weapons and the placement of the detected weapon on the body. An important additional goal is the identification of detected items, which requires a high resolution imaging technique. An experimental system has been developed at PNL which has gathered millimeter wave imagery from clothed mannequins and human beings carrying concealed weapons. This system is capable of forming images in excess of 1 meter by 2 meters at resolutions on the order of 1 cm, and is capable of scanning in less than 5 seconds. This experimental system could be enhanced to function in real time by eliminating the relatively slow mechanical scan. A sequentially switched linear array of transceiver antennas would allow real-time gathering of the imaging information, since the data would be electronically scanned in the lateral direction and electronically swept in frequency. This allows formation of a 2D image from a 1D array of transceiver antennas.
A prototype millimeter wave holographic surveillance system has been developed and demonstrated at the Pacific Northwest Laboratory (PNL). The prototype millimeter wave holographic surveillance system developed at PNL consists of a sequentially switched 2 X 64 element array coupled to a 35 GHz bi-static transceiver. The sequentially switched array of antennas can be used to obtain the holographic data at high speed by electronically sequencing the antennas along one dimension and performing a mechanical scan along the other dimension. A 1D mechanical scan can be performed in about one second. The prototype system scans an aperture of 0.75 by 2.05 m. This system has been demonstrated and images have been obtained on volunteers at Sea-Tac International airport in Seattle, Washington.
This paper reports the results of ultrawideband radar clutter measurements made by Battelle- Pacific Northwest Laboratories and the System Planning Corporation near Sequim, WA. The measurement area is a mountainous coniferous forest with occasional roads and clear-cut areas. Local grazing angles range from near zero to approximately 40 degree(s). Very limited data are also presented from measurements made in a desert-type terrain near Richland, WA. Two ultrawideband radar systems were employed in the data collection. An impulse system providing an approximate one nanosecond monocycle pulse (bandwidth of 300 MHz - 1000 MHz) acquired data over a 0.7 km2 area (121,000 resolution cells). A step chirp radar with the same total bandwidth as the impulse system collected data over a 6.2 km2 area (780,000 resolution cells), including the area sampled by the impulse system. Wideband TEM horn antennas (log-periodic antennas for the step chirp system) deployed on a 19 m horizontally scanned aperture were used for transmission and reception, providing a 1.5 degree(s) azimuth resolution at 300 MHz for both systems.
Various millimeter-wave imaging systems capable of imaging through clothing for the detection of contraband metal, plastic, or ceramic weapons, have been developed at PNL. Two dimensional scanned holographic systems, developed at 35, 90, and 350 GHz, are used to obtain high resolution images of metal and plastic targets concealed by clothing. Coherent single-frequency amplitude and phase data, which is gathered over a two-dimensional scanned aperture, is reconstructed to the target plane using a holographic wavefront reconstruction technique. Practical weapon detection systems require high-speed scanning. To achieve this goal, a 35 GHz linear sequentially switched array has been built and integrated into a high speed linear scanner. This system poses special challenges on calibration/signal processing of the holographic system. Further, significant improvements in speed are required to achieve real time operation. Toward this goal, a wideband scanned system which allows for a two- dimensional image formation from a one-dimensional scanned (or array) system has been developed. Signal/image processing techniques developed and implemented for this technique are a variation on conventional synthetic aperture radar (SAR) techniques which eliminate far- field and narrow-bandwidth requirements. Performance of this technique is demonstrated with imaging results obtained from a Ka-band system.
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