Electrophysiology techniques are the gold standard in neuroscience for studying functionality of a single neuron to a complex neuronal network. However, electrophysiology techniques are not flawless, they are invasive nature, procedures are cumbersome to implement with limited capability of being used as a high-throughput recording system. Also, long term studies of neuronal functionality with aid of electrophysiology is not feasible. Non-invasive stimulation and detection of neuronal electrical activity has been a long standing goal in neuroscience. Introduction of optogenetics has ushered in the era of non-invasive optical stimulation of neurons, which is revolutionizing neuroscience research. Optical detection of neuronal activity that is comparable to electro-physiology is still elusive. A number of optical techniques have been reported recording of neuronal electrical activity but none is capable of reliably measuring action potential spikes that is comparable to electro-physiology. Optical detection of action potential with voltage sensitive fluorescent reporters are potential alternatives to electrophysiology techniques. The heavily rely on secondary reporters, which are often toxic in nature with background fluorescence, with slow response and low SNR making them far from ideal. The detection of one shot (without averaging)-single action potential in a true label-free way has been elusive so far. In this report, we demonstrate the optical detection of single neuronal spike in a cultured mammalian neuronal network without using any exogenous labels. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of label free optical detection of single action potentials in a mammalian neuronal network, which was achieved using a high-speed phase sensitive interferometer. We have carried out stimulation and inhibition of neuronal firing using Glutamate and Tetrodotoxin respectively to demonstrate the different outcome (stimulation and inhibition) revealed in optical signal. We hypothesize that the interrogating optical beam is modulated during neuronal firing by electro-motility driven membrane fluctuation in conjunction with electrical wave propagation in cellular system.
Detecting cellular activity in sub-millisecond timescale and micrometer resolution without using invasive means has been a long standing goal in the study of cellular networks. Here, we have employed phase sensitive low coherence interferometry for detecting optogenetically stimulated activity of cells. Nanoscale changes in optical path length (due to change in refractive index and changes in cell thickness) occur when cells are activated, which we aim to detect by phase sensitive low coherence interferometry. A low coherence interferometry and patch-clamp electrophysiology systems were integrated with an inverted fluorescence microscope. Blue laser beam was coupled to the electrophysiology-interferometric detection system for optogenetic stimulation. The phase-sensitive measurements were carried out on Channelrhodopsin-2 sensitized cells (identified by YFP fluorescence) as well as control cells in reflection mode for different intensities and exposures of optogenetic stimulation beam. This method offers good temporal and spatial resolution without using exogenous labeling. Results of studies on all optical stimulation and detection of cellular activity will be presented. Interpretation of the optical activity signals will be discussed in context with changes in cell physiology during stimulation. We will also discuss the potential sources of various artifacts in optical/electrical detection of cellular activity during optical stimulation.
This study proposes a novel concept for a three-axis positioning and scanning platform that overcomes the existing gap in technology towards meeting the requirements for displacements, resolution, weight carrying capacity and velocity at smaller dimensions. The novelty of this work stems from the fact that our three-axis stage design utilizes only two actuators. This system was developed to meet the specific requirements needed for implementation of Multifunctional Image Guided Surgical (MIGS) platform. Mathematical model accounting for the open and closed loop operation of the stage was developed. The stage can provide displacements between 10-20mm in each axis, resolution of less than 10μm and scanning velocity in the range of 10-40mm/s. It can carry weights up to 10grams while meeting the desired requirements. Additionally, the stage has small footprint (50mm × 50mm × 34mm), modular design and extremely cost-effective fabrication. Integration of computer controlled three-axis stage with MIGS platform will provide the
opportunity for conducting intricate surgical procedures using remote control or joystick. We demonstrate novel
applications that became possible due to the development of this stage.
We have developed a high precision three axes scanning and positioning system for integration with
Multifunctional Image Guided Surgical (MIGS) Platform. The stage integrates three main components: an optical
coherence tomography (OCT) probe, laser scalpel and suction cup. The requirements for this stage were to provide
scanning area of 400mm2, resolution of less than 10 microns and scanning velocity in the range of 10 - 40 mm/s.
The stage was modeled using computer aided design software NX Unigraphics. In addition to the parameters
mentioned above, additional boundary conditions for the stage were set as low volume and modularity. Optimized
stage model was fabricated by using rapid prototyping technique that integrates low cost stepper motors, threaded
rod drive train and a stepper motor controller. The EZ4axis stepper motor controller was able to provide 1/8th microstep
resolution control over the motors, which met the criterion desired for the MIGS platform. Integration of
computer controlled three-axis stage with MIGS platform provides the opportunity for conducting intricate surgical
procedures using remote control or joystick. The device is image guided using the OCT probe and it is able to pin
point any location requiring a laser scalpel incision. Due to the scanning capabilities, a high quality threedimensional
image of the tissue topography is obtained which allows the surgeon to make a confident decision of
where to apply the laser scalpel and make an incision.
Gold nanoparticles have been shown to possess x-ray attenuation higher than that of clinically used iodine based contrast
agents. Additionally, gold nanoparticles have also been used in enhancing the Raman signal through a phenomenon
called Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS). The development of Gold nanoparticle based probes (nanotags) for
combined SERS and x-ray computed tomography (CT) are reported. These nanotags comprise quasi-spherical gold
nanoparticles encoded using a Raman active molecule and encapsulated by a monolayer of polyethylene glycol with
carboxylate functional groups for bioconjugation. The nanotags, made from ~65 nm gold nanoparticles, display large
SERS cross-section and x-ray absorption which are used for dual modality imaging of tumor cells in of an orthotropic
prostate cancer tumor animal model.
A highly sensitive technique for detection and quantification of protein-analyte binding interaction using spectral
domain low coherence interferometric technique is implemented. Using this technique, it is possible to study real time
interactions by quantifying the changes in optical path length caused by protein-analyte binding. The technique does not
require elaborate sensor preparation and calibration. Any coverslip with certain thickness and capability to bind protein
can work using this technique. For proof of principle, the interaction between IgG antigen and anti-IgG was studied and
quantification of the accumulation of anti-IgG on sensor surface was demonstrated. Additionally, for biological
relevance interactions between cancer biomarker EGFr and EGF was also studied and the preliminary results are
presented. The potential applications of the label free technique include point-of-care screening of cancer biomarkers and
tumor cell adhesion analysis.
A compact fiber optic scanner for biomedical applications such as optical coherent tomography has been designed,
fabricated and tested. The scanner is designed as an in vivo device and composed of an optical fiber coated with nickel-powder
loaded paint for external magnetic actuation. The compactness of the imaging device makes it suitable for
applications where size, precision and low power consumption is critical. We have previously demonstrated the
principles utilizing magnetic actuation for the fiber scanner coated with magnetic gel. This work focused on verification
and optimization of the scanner operation. The magnetic properties of the nickel particle mixed with paint were
characterized using an alternating gradient magnetometer. The optical scanner is externally actuated by an
electromagnet and so it does not require a voltage or current supply in the probe itself. The displacements of the scanner
were recorded using a position sensitive detector. The result showed a 0.8-mm displacement under the influence of a
static magnetic field of 17.6 KA/m in a fiber with a moveable length of 4.2cm. Dynamic analysis showed a
displacement of 0.83mm with an input current amplitude of 41mA and a magnetic field of 2.4 KA/m. The
measurements are in good agreement with the theoretical lumped-element calculations. Finite-element analysis was
performed and the results agree with the theoretical and experimental results. The static and dynamic displacements of
the fiber optic scanner depend on the thickness and length of the magnetic coating. Thus, scanners for different
displacements and operating frequencies can be designed by varying the coating thickness and length.
We have demonstrated non-contact, sub-nanometer optical measurement of neural surface displacement associated with action potential propagation without applying exogenous chemicals or reflection coatings. Signals recorded from crayfish leg nerve using a phase-sensitive optical low coherence reflectometer show that transient neural surface displacement due to action potential propagation is approximately 1 nm in amplitude and 1 ms in duration. Measured optical signals are coincident with electrical action potential arrival to the optical measurement site. Recent experiments indicate signals with similar amplitude and duration are observed in response to repetitive fast stimulation (200 stimuli/s).
We describe a methodology to record spatial variation of refractive index of porcine renal artery using differential phase optical coherence tomography (DP-OCT). DP-OCT provides a quantitative measure of thin specimen phase retardation and refractive index with phase resolution of 5 nm and lateral resolution of 3 mm. DP-OCT instrumentation is an all-fiber, dual channel Michelson interferometer constructed using polarization maintaining fiber. Two orthogonal polarization modes of light are spatially separated using a Wollaston prism and directed into separate photoreceivers. Because phase noise in the environment is equally present in both channels, computation of phase difference between the two signal channels is attributed exclusively to variation in the specimen's composite refractive index. Porcine renal artery is freshly harvested from a local slaughter house. The lumen is cut open and sliced at 5 mm thickness. Microscopic slide for the tissue section is processed by standard histology method with mounting media. Two dimensional en face dual-channel phase images are taken over 150 mm x 200 mm region on the microscopic slide and the images are reconstructed by plotting relative phase variation as the OCT beam is moved across the artery cross section.
We report results of a study using differential phase optical coherence tomography (DP-OCT) for
measurement of variation of refractive index (n) vs. analyte concentration (C) in translucent solutions and
turbid tissue phantoms. Variation of refractive index with analyte concentration (dn/dC) in aqueous
solutions of glucose, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, sodium chloride, potassium chloride,
potassium bicarbonate, urea, bovine serum albumin, and bovine globulin was measured. Obtained results
demonstrated: (1) dn/dC for glucose is significantly greater than that of other analytes in the physiological
range; and (2) high sensitivity of DP-OCT method for measurement of analyte concentration.
We describe a phase sensitive optical low coherence reflectometer using polarization maintaining optical fiber with high lateral, longitudinal and phase resolution for biomedical applications. The system utilizes three sample path configurations (i.e. single beam, lateral beams, and longitudinally delayed channels) and allows investigation of various topics in biomedical research. Applications include measurement of birefringence change, intensity and phase imaging, refractive index measurements, surface analysis, and measurement of solute concentrations.
We have developed a low-coherence optical sensor for detection of laser-induced thermoelastic deformations in biological materials. The presented optical sensor utilizes a birefringent fiber-based dual channel low-coherence Michelson interferometer capable of differential phase measurements. We demonstrate that the low-coherence sensor can be used for spatially-resolved measurements of laser-induced thermoelastic deformations in biological materials with high axial resolution. Experimental studies were carried out using gelatin-based tissue phantoms.
We present a fiber optic spectral polarimeter, an instrument that allows measurement of the spectrally resolved Stokes parameters. The instrument consists of a pair of polarization maintaining (PM) fibers spliced at 45 degree(s) with respect to each other in line with a polarizer module whose transmission axis is aligned to the fast axis of the first PM fiber. The generated spectrum is composed of three quasi- cosinusoidal components, which carry information required to reconstruct the spectrally resolved Stokes parameters of incident light. Fourier transform of the measured spectrum provides the significant parameters for determination of the spectrally resolved Stokes parameters of light. The performance of the fiber optic spectral polarimeter is demonstrated by the computer simulation and experiments with input light of known polarization states. A unique characteristic of this instrument is that the spectrally resolved polarization state of incident light can be determined from one spectral measurement without any mechanical movement. Moreover, the instrument can be incorporated into a tomographic imaging system such as a conventional microscopy system. Polarization based microscopy combined with a fiber optic spectral polarimeter will provide measurements that allow better understanding of depolarization process of light passing through biological materials for diagnostic imaging.
Imaging the optical phase retardation per unit depth (OPR/UD) in the retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) may aid in glaucoma diagnosis. Polarization Sensitive Optical Coherence Tomography (PSOCT) was used to record in vivo high-resolution images of the RNFL in two cynomologous monkeys. The depth variation in the Stokes vector of reflected light was used to calculate the OPR/UD as a function of RNFL position. OPR/UD decreased from 35 degree(s)/100 micrometers near the optic nerve to 5 degree(s)/100 micrometers at a location 600 micrometers superior to the optic nerve. Variation of OPR/UD in the RNFL with retinal position demonstrates a change in birefringence for different densities of ganglion cell axons. PSOCT may be useful for noninvasive determination of RNFL thickness and fiber density.
In many bio-medical optical imaging applications such as monitoring cell and tissue dynamics and imaging of phase objects, ultra-small changes in refractive index must be detected. We describe a fiber-based optical biosensor, which is capable of detecting ultra-small refractive index changes in highly scattering media with high lateral and longitudinal spatial resolution. The system is a dual channel phase-sensitive optical low coherence tomography system that measures relative optical path length differences between the orthogonal modes of the polarization-maintaining fiber.
Nonablative skin resurfacing is a dermatologic procedure utilizing pulsed laser irradiation and dynamic cooling to induce selectively a wound healing response in the papillary and upper reticular dermis. Using temperature measurements of human skin provided by pulsed photothermal radiometry immediately following laser irradiation (lambda equals 1.32 micrometer), spatial distribution of thermal damage is predicted in response to various potential therapeutic laser- cryogen doses. Results of our analysis suggest that appropriate application of pulsed laser irradiation and cryogen spray cooling may be used to protect the epidermis and selectively confine thermal injury to the papillary and upper reticular dermis. Development of nonablative skin resurfacing will require understanding the relationship between the degree of dermal photocoagulation and the cutaneous wound healing response following laser irradiation.
We report the development of an optical technique for noninvasive in vivo imaging of tissue structure and blood flow dynamics with high spatial resolution (2 - 15 micrometer) in biological systems. The technique is based on coherence optical Doppler tomography (ODT), which combines Doppler velocimetry with optical coherence tomography to measure blood flow velocity at discrete spatial locations. The exceptionally high resolution of ODT allows noninvasive in vivo imaging of both blood microcirculation and tissue structures surrounding the vessel, which has significance for biomedical research and clinical applications. Tomographic velocity imaging of in vivo blood flow in a rat mesentery is demonstrated.
Gary Lask, Patrick Lee, Manouchehr Seyfzadeh, J. Stuart Nelson, Thomas Milner, Bahman Anvari, Digant Dave, Roy Geronemus, Leonard Bernstein, Harry Mittelman, Laurie Ridener, Walter Coulson, Bruce Sand, Jon Baumgarder, David Hennings, Richard Menefee, Michael Berry
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the safety and effectiveness of the New Star Model 130 neodymium:yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG) laser system for nonablative laser treatment of facial rhytides (e.g., periorbital wrinkles). Facial rhytides are treated with 1.32 micrometer wavelength laser light delivered through a fiberoptic handpiece into a 5 mm diameter spot using three 300 microsecond duration pulses at 100 Hz pulse repetition frequency and pulse radiant exposures extending up to 12 J/cm2. Dynamic cooling is used to cool the epidermis selectively prior to laser treatment; animal histology experiments confirm that dynamic cooling combined with nonablative laser heating protects the epidermis and selectively injures the dermis. In the human clinical study, immediately post-treatment, treated sites exhibit mild erythema and, in a few cases, edema or small blisters. There are no long-term complications such as marked dyspigmentation and persistent erythema that are commonly observed following ablative laser skin resurfacing. Preliminary results indicate that the severity of facial rhytides has been reduced, but long-term follow-up examinations are needed to quantify the reduction. The mechanism of action of this nonablative laser treatment modality may involve dermal wound healing that leads to long- term synthesis of new collagen and extracellular matrix material.
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