High diffraction-efficiency nonpolarizing gratings with CW damage thresholds in the range of 100 kW/cm2 and higher are necessary for scaling Spectral-Beam-Combined (SBC) High-Energy Laser (HEL) systems to MW powers and above. We present the results of a campaign to improve capabilities of multilayer dielectric gratings for these applications. Current capabilities are demonstrated by showing the peak temperature, damage threshold, defect density, and diffraction efficiency (where applicable) of 51 MLD gratings and 17 coatings when illuminated at 1070 nm at intensities up to 3 MW/cm2.
We discuss upgrades and development currently underway at the Z-Backlighter facility. Among them are a
new optical parametric chirped pulse amplier (OPCPA) front end, 94 cm 42 cm multi layer dielectric (MLD)
gratings, dichroic laser beam transport studies, 25 keV x-ray source development, and a major target area
expansion. These upgrades will pave the way for short/long pulse, multi-frame, multi-color x-ray backlighting
at the Z-Accelerator.
Mirrors and gratings used in high power ultra fast lasers require a broad bandwidth and high damage fluence,
which is essential to the design and construction of petawatt class short pulse lasers. Damage fluence of
several commercially available high energy broad band dielectric mirrors with over 100 nm bandwidth at 45
degree angle of incidence, and pulse compression reflection gratings with gold coating with varying
processing conditions is studied using a 25 femtosecond ultra-fast laser.
Sandia's Large Optics Coating Operation has extensive results of laser induced damage threshold (LIDT) testing of its
anti-reflection (AR) and high reflection coatings on substrates pitch polished using ceria and washed in a process that
includes an alumina wash step. The purpose of the alumina wash step is to remove residual polishing compound to
minimize its role in laser damage. These LIDT tests are for multi longitudinal mode, ns class pulses at 1064 nm and
532 nm (NIF-MEL protocol) and mode locked, sub-ps class pulses at 1054 nm (Sandia measurements), and show
reasonably high and adequate laser damage resistance for coatings in the beam trains of Sandia's Z-Backlighter terawatt
and petawatt lasers. An AR coating in addition to coatings of our previous reports confirms this with LIDTs of 33.0
J/cm2 for 3.5 ns pulses and 1.8 J/cm2 for 350 fs pulses. In this paper, we investigate both ceria and zirconia in doublesided
polishing (common for large flat Z-Backlighter laser optics) as they affect LIDTs of an AR coating on fused silica
substrates washed with or without the alumina wash step. For these AR coated, double-sided polished surfaces, ceria
polishing in general affords better resistance to laser damage than zirconia polishing and laser damage is less likely with
the alumina wash step than without it. This is supported by specific results of laser damage tests with 3.5 ns, multi
longitudinal mode, single shot pulses at 1064 nm and 532 nm, with 7.0 ns, single and multi longitudinal mode, single
and multi shot pulses at 532 nm, and with 350 fs, mode-locked, single shot pulses at 1054 nm.
Sandia's Large Optics Coating Operation provides laser damage resistant optical coatings on meter-class optics required
for the ZBacklighter Terawatt and Petawatt lasers. Deposition is by electron beam evaporation in a 2.3 m × 2.3 m × 1.8
m temperature controlled vacuum chamber. Ion assisted deposition (IAD) is optional. Coating types range from antireflection
(AR) to high reflection (HR) at S and P polarizations for angle of incidence (AOI) from 0° to 47°.
This paper reports progress in meeting challenges in design and deposition of these high laser induced damage threshold
(LIDT) coatings. Numerous LIDT tests (NIF-MEL protocol, 3.5 ns laser pulses at 1064 nm and 532 nm) on the coatings
confirm that they are robust against laser damage. Typical LIDTs are: at 1064 nm, 45° AOI, Ppol, 79 J/cm2 (IAD 32
layer HR coating) and 73 J/cm2 (non-IAD 32 layer HR coating); at 1064 nm, 32° AOI, 82 J/cm2 (Ppol) and 55 J/cm2
(Spol ) (non-IAD 32 layer HR coating); and at 532 nm, Ppol, 16 J/cm2 (25° AOI) and 19 J/cm2 (45° AOI) (IAD 50 layer
HR coating). The demands of meeting challenging spectral, AOI and LIDT performances are highlighted by an HR
coating required to provide R > 99.6% reflectivity in Ppol and Spol over AOIs from 24° to 47° within ~ 1% bandwidth at
both 527 nm and 1054 nm.
Another issue is coating surface roughness. For IAD of HR coatings, elevating the chamber temperature to ~ 120 °C and
turning the ion beam off during the pause in deposition between layers reduce the coating surface roughness compared to
runs at lower temperatures with the ion beam on continuously. Atomic force microscopy and optical profilometry
confirm the reduced surface roughness for these IAD coatings, and tests show that their LIDTs remain high.
Large aperture laser pulse compressor designs use several diffraction gratings in series and sometimes tiled together to
compress an amplified 1 to 10 ns pulse to 0.1 to 10 ps. The wavefront of the compressed pulse must be well controlled to
allow focusing to a small spot on a target. Traditionally, multilayer dielectric gratings (MLDG) have been fabricated
onto high thermal expansion substrates such as BK7 glass to prevent crazing and excessive bending due to tensile
coating stress when operated in high vacuum. However, the high CTE of the BK7 can cause wavefront distortion and
changes in the period of the grating.
This work uses ion-assisted deposition of HfO2/SiO2 films to increase the compressive stress in MLD layers to allow use
of silica substrates in the compressor vacuum environment. Stress, coating uniformity, and damage results are reported.
The process was scaled to full size (91cm × 42cm) MLD gratings for use in the Osaka University LFEX laser system.
Diffracted wavefront results from the full scale gratings is presented.
Degradation of sol-gel coated KDP surfaces has been observed in crystals used on the OMEGA laser system in 40-50% relative humidity environments. The defect characteristic is an etch pit which develops under the sol-gel coating and produces a significant loss in the crystal due to scatter. Both diamond-turned and polished KDP surfaces show evidence of defect growth after sol-gel coating and exposure to ambient conditions; however, there is no relationship between defect growth and exposure to laser radiation. The defect size, orientation, and density is uniform across a diamond-turned surface, and the growth rate is accelerated with exposure to higher relative humidity. Experiments with a thermosetting polysiloxane and polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) demonstrate these materials are successful barriers to prevent the transport of water vapor via the sol-gel coating to the KDP surface. Both materials meet the OMEGA laser damage threshold requirement and have been successfully applied to 300mm diameter KDP crystals.
Electron-beam deposition is the current method to produce large-aperture high laser-induced damage threshold coatings for the National Ignition Facility, a 1.8 MJ fusion laser. The e-beam process is scalable to large optics up to 0.25 m2 and with laser conditioning has relatively benign coating defect ejections resulting in high damage threshold thin films. The latest technological breakthrough in manufacturing high damage threshold coatings is e-beam deposition of hafnia by evaporation from a metallic instead of an oxide source in a reactive environment. Although the damage threshold is not significantly increased, a 3-10x defect reduction occurs resulting in significantly less coating modification during laser conditioning. Additional benefits of this technology include improved interfaces for the elimination of flat-bottom pits and up to 3x reduction in plume instability for improved layer thickness control and spectral performance.
Laser-driven implosion experiments require optical phase conversion to create a uniformly irradiated target. Distributed phase plates provide a quasi-random phase front that aids in beam smoothing on the target; however, the DPP must survive the high fluences of the tripled OMEGA beam at 351 nm. The continuous DPP produces higher efficiency and less risk of damage to opposing optics than the previous binary design. DPPs are created by exposing a gray scale pattern in photoresist and then etching the pattern in to silica. Several problems were solved during the development stage of ion etching DPPs. The etch uniformity was limited to less than 6 percent across a 28-cm clear aperture by modeling the 16-cm ion source and erosion characteristics of the photoresist and silica. Surface texturing was linked to overheating of the photoresist by the ion source and was solved by radiant cooling. Near-field defects capable of focusing damage in levels of fluence on downstream optics were created in the photoresist exposure process and were removed after etching. The damage thresholds of the silica surface generally increase after etching is fare is taken to avoid re-sputtering of tooling onto the optics surface. Sixty ion-etched DPPs were installed in December 1997 and, currently, damage has not been observed on the optics.
Vacuum surface damage to fused-silica, spatial-filter lenses is the most prevalent laser-damage problem occurring on the OMEGA laser system. Approximately one-half of the stage C- input and output, D-input, E-input, and F-input spatial- filter lenses are currently damaged with millimeter-scale fracture sites. With the establishment of safe operational damage criteria, laser operation has not been impeded. These sol-gel-coated lenses see an average fluence of 2 to 4 J/cm2 at 1053 nm/1 ns. Sol-gel coatings on fused-silica glass have small-spot damage thresholds at least a factor of 2 higher than this peak operational fluence. It is now known that the vacuum surface of OMEGA's spatial-filter lenses are contaminated with vacuum pump oils and machine oils used in the manufacture of the tubes; however, development-phase damage tests were conducted on uncontaminated witness samples. Possible explanations for the damage include absorbing defects originating form ablated pinhole materials, contamination nucleated at surface defects on the coating, or subsurface defects from the polishing process. The damage does not correlate with hot spots in the beam, and the possibility of damage from ghost reflections has been eliminated. Experiments have been initiated to investigate the long-term benefits of ion etching to remove subsurface damage and to replace sol-gel layers by dielectric oxide coatings, which do not degrade with oil contamination.
Results from monolayer-film laser-damage studies by various authors have remained difficult to compare, owing to many extrinsic factors having impact on measured damage thresholds and observed damage morphology. Prominent among these factors are the deposition method and conditions during deposition, the choice of starting materials, and the condition of supporting substrates. Here special attention is paid to the film-supporting surface with the goal of eliminating interfacial absorption effects. Fused-silica and float-glass substrates are prepared by various techniques: cleaved, conventionally polished, conventionally polished with added magnetorheological finish, and ion milled after conventional polish. Atomic-force microscopy is employed in determining microroughness and mapping laser-damage morphology features after irradiation at 1054 nm and 351 nm. HfO2 and SiO2 monolayers deposited on these surfaces showed large variations in damage threshold and morphology, depending on substrate-finish conditions. In spite of highest microroughness, cleaved-float-glass surfaces yielded the highest damage thresholds in both bare and coated forms. A comparison between HfO2 and SiO2 monolayer damage thresholds proved SiO2 to be generally far superior to HfO2.
Terrance Kessler, Ying Lin, Lawrence Iwan, Bill Castle, C. Kellogg, J. Barone, E. Kowaluk, Ansgar Schmid, Kenneth Marshall, Douglas Smith, Amy Rigatti, Joy Warner, Arthur Staley
Energy-efficient laser phase conversion, using fully continuous distributed phase plates, has been achieved for solid-state laser drivers in ICF. Optical lithography has been demonstrated to be an excellent means of generating deep, continuous surface-relief structures in photosensitive materials that subsequently are replicated with embossing or etching techniques. In addition, the method of simulated annealing has been shown to be a superior technique for designing continuous phase plates to control the focal-plane profile.
HfO2/SiO2 Brewster's angle polarizers are being developed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory for the National Ignition Facility. Damage threshold studies using a 3-ns pulse length 1064-nm laser have revealed a number of different damage morphologies such as nodular ejection pits, plasma scalds, and overcoat delaminations. Of these laser damage morphologies, delaminations have the most negative impact on fusion laser performance. By increasing the thickness of the SiO2 overcoat, the delamination morphology is eliminated without significantly modifying the spectral characteristics of the coating. A model of the thermal mechanical response of the overcoats is presented for various SIO2 overcoat thicknesses. The overcoat thickness influences the electric-field profile resulting in different thermal gradients between the outer SiO2 and HfO2 layers. This modeling effort attempts to understand the relationship between the thermal stress distribution in the overcoat and the occurrence of delamination.
Polarizer coatings developed for the OMEGA laser are performing well without sustaining any significant damage. Similar polarizers developed for the National Ignition Facility have exceptionally high damage thresholds when tested with a 1-ns pulse at 1054 nm. Polarizers for OMEGA were originally developed using Ta2O5/SiO2 multilayers. All final polarizers before the frequency conversion cell were made using this method. A new coating was developed for a polarizing beamsplitter with more stringent optical and laser-damage requirements. The new coating used a HfO2/SIO2 system with the hafnia formed by reactive evaporation from a hafnium metal melt. The new process provided better film control, lower defect counts, better stress control, and higher damage thresholds. Beamsplitter coatings made from both processes were installed in the OMEGA laser. After 1.5 years of operation the Ta2O5/SiO2 beamsplitters are developing signs of damage on OMEGA while the HfO2/SiO2 coatings show no damage. The HfO2/SiO2 process was also used to develop polarizer coatings for the NIF. Damage- threshold results from 1-on-1 testing will be presented for both types of polarizers. Experimental results show that the coating damage threshold is not strongly dependent on deposition parameters, allowing use of these parameters to control film stress. The damage thresholds are higher for s- polarized incident light, and different damage morphologies for the two polarizations have been observed. A base layer of scandium oxide that allows the coating to be safely stripped does not affect the polarizer damage threshold.
HfO2/SiO2 polarizer coatings for 1054 nm have been produced that have low stress at explicit environmental conditions without the employment of backside stress- compensation films. In this process hafnia is condensed from a metallic melt and silica from an oxide source, both via electron-beam evaporation. Specifically, this process has been adopted for multilayer designs with stringent requirements on spectral control and wavefront distortion. Efforts to meet these requirements have prompted various investigations of coating stress and spectral behavior, especially under changing environmental conditions. Results have shown that coating stress and optical thickness vary significantly with humidity. THese quantities have been measured under both ambient air and dry nitrogen atmospheres. The effects of coating parameters on stress and environmental stability have been examined for an experimental hafnia/silica polarizer coating. The aforementioned parameters are hafnia deposition rate, oxygen pressure during hafnia deposition, and oxygen pressure during silica deposition. Results indicate a strong correlation of coating stress to oxygen pressure during the silica evaporation. Data on the aging of stress in hafnia/silica coatings will also be presented. The HfO2/SiO2 process has ben utilized in high-laser-damage- threshold coatings for the OMEGA laser system and for National Ignition Facility development coatings at the Laboratory for Laser Energetics.
The 60-beam OMEGA laser has sustained approximately 1000 target shots without significant damage to the optics. Approximately 3000 optics on the OMEGA laser system were closely monitored during their installation, and inspections continue throughout the operation of the system. A review of the condition of these optics at each stage of the laser and a summary of the peak incident fluences are presented. The most severe damage on OMEGA is seen on the input, fused- silica, spatial filter lenses. Since these optics are under vacuum, inspection of damaged lenses occurs on a more frequent cycle to track the growth of the defect and to maintain the system's safety. An optic is replaced well before massive failure is expected to occur. Other optics on the system that exhibit different types of damage are BK7 spatial filter lenses, focus conversion crystals, primary pickoff lenses, calorimeters, and liquid-crystal optics. Laser glass and development optics such as distributed phase plates are not covered in this review.
Submicrometer lateral-size craters that develop independently of the presence of micron-scale growth nodules and whose number density follows the intensity profile of the full laser beam are the dominant laser-damage features in 351-nm high-reflector production coatings on the University of Rochester's 60-beam OMEGA laser. Coupled with the observation that the smallest measured damage craters allow for initiating absorber sizes not larger than 10 nm, the experimental evidence points toward randomly distributed nano-cluster absorbers as the sources for energy transfer from the optical field to the porous film medium.
A polarizing beamsplitter used for the OMEGA Upgrade, was produced using the hafnia/silica combination. These coatings have stringent optical requirements, are placed in the stages of the laser with the highest fluence at 1054 nm, and are required to have a low net stress to produce low wavefront distortion. Hafnia/silica coatings are also more stable than other film combinations such as tantala/silica. Hafnia/silica films were investigated for other applications. A triple wavelength antireflection coating was developed for calorimeter absorption glass. The metal-converted hafnia is also used on selected transport mirrors used at 351 nm and angles of incidence up to 45 degrees. Damage test results for 1054 nm, 1 ns, and 351 nm, 0.7 ns will be presented.
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