SignificanceThe arterial input function (AIF) plays a crucial role in correcting the time-dependent concentration of the contrast agent within the arterial system, accounting for variations in agent injection parameters (speed, timing, etc.) across patients. Understanding the significance of the AIF can enhance the accuracy of tissue vascular perfusion assessment through indocyanine green–based dynamic contrast-enhanced fluorescence imaging (DCE-FI).AimWe evaluate the impact of the AIF on perfusion assessment through DCE-FI.ApproachA total of 144 AIFs were acquired from 110 patients using a pulse dye densitometer. Simulation and patient intraoperative imaging were conducted to validate the significance of AIF for perfusion assessment based on kinetic parameters extracted from fluorescence images before and after AIF correction. The kinetic model accuracy was evaluated by assessing the variability of kinetic parameters using individual AIF versus population-based AIF.ResultsIndividual AIF can reduce the variability in kinetic parameters, and population-based AIF can potentially replace individual AIF for estimating wash-out rate (kep), maximum intensity (Imax), ingress slope with lower differences compared with those in estimating blood flow, volume transfer constant (Ktrans), and time to peak.ConclusionsIndividual AIF can provide the most accurate perfusion assessment compared with assessment without AIF or based on population-based AIF correction.
Bacterial biofilms are a pervasive issue in orthopaedic surgery causing up to 80% of infections. Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) is a proposed technique for eradication of biofilms, clinical translation requires optimization of treatment parameters. This study assessed the effectiveness of three light spectra in activating photosensitizing porphyrins to kill a dual species biofilm of E. Coli and E. faecalis grown in a microfluidic device. Blue-red, amber, or blue-amber-red light sources were compared at either 30J/cm2 or 60J/cm2 doses given to activate endogenously produced porphyrins after one hour incubation with 10 or 20% 5-ALA in a saline solution. Changes in biomass 24 hours after treatment were measured using confocal microscopy and OCT to determine treatment effectiveness.
In osseointegrated prosthesis surgery, implant failure is a significant complication caused by inadequate bone healing influenced by microfractures and decreased perfusion. Current perfusion assessment techniques are not capable to detect subtle damage that impacts healing. In this study, we employed dynamic contrast-enhanced fluorescent imaging (DCE-FI) to quantify changes in bone blood supply caused by osseointegration and correlated them with the extent of microfracturing at the bone-hardware interface detected with micro computed tomography. Performed experiments enable the translation of the developed technique to the second phase of the study: investigation of the optimal implant diameter relative to the inner diameter of the bone and intraoperative prediction of future implant failure after osseointegration in a longitudinal pre-clinical study.
Well-organized ecosystems of bacteria colonize orthopaedic devices causing biofilm infections that are notoriously difficult to manage. Biofilms typically exhibit increased resistance to antibiotics leading to treatment failure, and tools for eradicating biofilms that do not increase antibiotic resistance are greatly needed. Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) is a promising form of treatment to combat clinically relevant biofilms. Exogenous provision of 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA) to biofilm-forming clinical strains of E. coli, E. faecalis and S. aureus was recently shown by several research groups to result in the accumulation of sufficient quantities of endogenous photosensitizers porphyrins (protoporphyrin IX, coproporphyrin III and others), via the heme biosynthetic pathway, to produce a significant phototoxic effect when exposed to activating light. For clinical translation of this extremely promising approach, here we develop a portable light source for 5-ALA-based aPDT of orthopaedic implant biofilms, spectrally shaped for optimal porphyrin light absorption at wavelengths range approved by FDA for clinical use. After phantom calibration, we tested it on E.coli-E.faecalis biofilms grown in soft lithography-fabricated microfluidic chips and on methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) biofilms grown on titanium and stainless steel orthopaedic hardware in custom-designed macrofluidic devices. Successful in-vitro experiments allowed us to conduct a proof-of-concept validation study in a preclinical rat model of MRSA-contaminated open fracture. Following tibia fracture and two hours of wound infection development, a one hour incubation with 20% 5-ALA and treatment with either 90J/cm2 or three fractions of 30J/cm2 light doses demonstrated 94% and 99% overall reduction of MRSA, respectively, while the temperature of the tissue remained <39°C, below the threshold for thermal damage. The encouraging results suggest further preclinical testing of the developed light source for optimization of aPDT regimen and 5-ALA concentration to reduce the risk of long-term side effects in animal models of contaminated trauma surgery.
Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) bacteria commonly found on orthopaedic implants, form treatment resistant biofilms that are difficult to manage. Creating new imaging modalities that allow us to understand biofilm development and accurately indicate the efficacy of treatments will greatly aid research in biofilm infection treatment methods. In this in vitro study, we determined the correlation between the number of MRSA CFUs and the radiance of MRSA aliquots with bioluminescent plasmids in the resolution volume of the Perkin Elmer’s IVIS Spectrum imaging system at specific imaging depths. We standardized MRSA bioluminescence curves for planktonic and biofilm-associated MRSA grown on titanium and stainless-steel orthopaedic hardware. The ability to relate measured radiance to the biofilm bioburden on a metal surface provides a critical tool for our ongoing pre-clinical studies identifying and treating biofilm-forming infections in contaminated high-energy fracture (rats) and contaminated osseointegration after amputation (rabbits).
Orthopaedic implant-associated infections cause serious complications primarily attributed to bacterial biofilm formation and often characterized by increased antibiotic resistance and diminished treatment response. There is currently a lack of imaging modalities that can directly visualize biofilms to determine the location and extent of contamination. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a portable, non-invasive, high-resolution imaging modality with the potential to fulfill this unmet need. In this study, we aim to evaluate the efficacy of OCT in detecting biofilms formed by life- and limb-threatening bacteria on orthopaedic implants. Bioluminescent strain SAP231 of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) was used to grow biofilms on the surfaces of titanium and stainless-steel orthopaedic hardware situated inside custom-designed macrofluidic devices, allowing continuous nutrient broth supply and waste removal. Three-dimensional OCT images of each piece of hardware were obtained every 24 hours with subsequent bioluminescence imaging using the PerkinElmer IVIS Spectrum. OCT texture analysis based on multi-parametric fitting approach was developed and validated against IVIS quantification for accurate identification of live MRSA signatures. The monitoring of biofilm formation and measurement of film thicknesses starting at 12 micrometers and reaching 180 micrometers in 72 hours on metal hardware is demonstrated. This proof-of-concept study highlights the ability of OCT to detect and quantify the formation of MRSA bacterial biofilms in a high fidelity orthopaedic implant biofilm model in vitro, opening avenues for translation of this technique to preclinical models of contaminated orthopaedic trauma surgery and further clinical translation.
In orthopedic trauma surgery, traditional socket-based prostheses are associated with functionally limiting problems affecting 1.7 million amputees in the United States. To improve post-surgical performance and minimize socket-related complications, bone-anchored (osseointegrated) prostheses have been developed. Functionally superior, their widespread implementation has been limited due to infection. In an unacceptable number of patients well-organized biofilm ecosystems of bacteria colonize the osseointegrated implant (OI) and migrate into device-tissue interface, leading to superficial and deep infections, and implant failure. Since the OI implant protrudes through the skin, the site is easily contaminated by microbes. The problem is worsened by increased resistance to antibiotics contributing significantly to surgical outcome failure. Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT)—which uses photosensitizers excited with visible light to disrupt biofilms and kill bacteria with produced reactive oxygen species—has been proposed to address this problem. To assess biofilm formation and aPDT effectiveness, we describe a rabbit OI model and steps to investigate the ability of aPDT using 5-Aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA)-based light therapy to control methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) bacterial infection. As part of an institutionally approved survival surgery, this model involves lower limb amputation at the tibia, OI installation and MRSA inoculation. Within a week of biofilm formation, the optimal aPDT regime of light and 5-ALA dose was applied to the implant-skin interface to eradicate migrating biofilms. We have built a circumferential light source spectrally shaped for optimal photoactivation and cooled without risk of bacteria dispersal. Optical coherence tomography (skin flap healing and side-effects), micro-computed tomography (OI-bone integrity) and bioluminescence (bacterial bioburden before and after aPDT) imaging were used to monitor outcome for up to three weeks post-treatment.
SignificanceIndocyanine green-based dynamic contrast-enhanced fluorescence imaging (DCE-FI) can objectively assess bone perfusion intraoperatively. However, it is susceptible to motion artifact due to patients’ involuntary respiration and mechanical disturbance. Reducing motion artifacts would significantly improve DCE-FI for orthopedic surgical guidance.AimOur primary objective is to develop an automated correction method to reduce motion artifacts in DCE-FI and improve the accuracy of bone perfusion assessment.ApproachWe developed an automated motion correction approach based on frame-by-frame mutual information (MI) and validated the effectiveness of this approach in various phantom studies and patient images from 45 imaging sessions of fifteen amputees.ResultsThe MI-based correction reduced motion artifacts by 93% for mechanical disturbances and 76% for simulated respiration in phantom studies. Patient images show improved alignment, improved kinetic curves, and restored bone perfusion-related parameters with an average correction of 4.3 and 9.6 mm in x- and y-axes per session.ConclusionsThe automated MI-based motion correction was able to eliminate motion artifacts effectively and significantly improved the quantitative assessment of bone perfusion by DCE-FI.
Indocyanine green (ICG)-based dynamic contrast-enhanced fluorescence imaging (DCE-FI) can objectively assess bone perfusion intraoperatively. However, it is susceptible to motion artifacts due to patient’s involuntary respiration during the 4.5-minute DCE-FI data acquisition. An automated motion correction approach based on mutual information (MI) frame-by-frame was developed to overcome this problem. In this approach, MIs were calculated between the reference and the adjacent frame translated and the maximal MI corresponded to the optimal translation. The images obtained from eighteen amputation cases were utilized to validate the approach and the results show that this correction can significantly reduce the motion artifacts and can improve the accuracy of bone perfusion assessment.
Necrotizing soft-tissue infections (NSTIs) are aggressive and deadly. Immediate surgical debridement is standard-ofcare, but patients often present with non-specific symptoms, thereby delaying treatment. Because NSTIs cause microvascular thrombosis, we hypothesized that perfusion imaging using indocyanine green (ICG) would show diminished fluorescence signal in NSTI-affected tissues, particularly compared to non-necrotizing, superficial infections. Through a first-in-kind clinical study, we performed first-pass ICG fluorescence perfusion imaging of patients with suspected NSTIs. Early results support our hypothesis that ICG signal voids occur in NSTI-affected tissues and that dynamic contrast-enhanced fluorescence parameters reveal tissue kinetics that may be related to disease progression and extent.
Following orthopaedic trauma, bone devitalization is a critical determinant of complications such as infection or nonunion. Intraoperative assessment of bone perfusion has thus far been limited. Furthermore, treatment failure for infected fractures is unreasonably high, owing to the propensity of biofilm to form and become entrenched in poorly vascularized bone. Fluorescence-guided surgery and molecularly-guided surgery could be used to evaluate the viability of bone and soft tissue and detect the presence of planktonic and biofilm-forming bacteria. This proceedings paper discusses the motivation behind developing this technology and our most recent preclinical and clinical results.
Debridement of the surgical site during open fracture reduction and internal fixation is important for preventing surgical site infection; the risk of subsequent fracture-associated infection for a particular area of tissue is assessed by the surgeon based on multi-level variables, including demographics and laboratory results. Intraoperative fluorescence imaging can contribute additional information at a more localized level. Here we present a fluorescence-based predictive model using features from dynamic contrast enhanced-fluorescence imaging (DCE-FI), as well as patient-level variables associated with infection risk. Regions-of-interest were selected from thirty-eight enrolled open fracture patients. Spatial and kinetic features were extracted from DCE-FI, and combined with patient infection risk factor describing the possibility of getting surgical-site-infection. The model was evaluated for ability to predict composite outcome scores—intra-operative surgeon assessment coupled with post-operative confirmed infection outcome. This proposed model demonstrates high predictive performance with an accuracy of 0.86, evaluated with a cross-validation approach, and is a promising approach for early and quick identification of tissue prone to infection.
Accelerating innovation in the space of fluorescence imaging for surgical applications has increased interest in safely and expediently advancing these technologies to clinic through Food and Drug Administration- (FDA-) compliant trials. Conventional metrics for early phase trials include drug safety, tolerability, dosing, and pharmacokinetics. Most procedural imaging technologies rely on administration of an exogenous fluorophore and concurrent use of an imaging system; both of which must receive FDA approval to proceed to clinic. Because fluorophores are classified as medical imaging agents, criteria for establishing dose are different, and arguably more complicated, than therapeutic drugs. Since no therapeutic effect is desired, medical imaging agents are ideally administered at the lowest dose that achieves adequate target differentiation. Because procedural imaging modalities are intended to enhance and/or ease proceduralists’ identification or assessment of tissues, beneficial effects of these technologies may manifest in the form of qualitative endpoints such as: 1) confidence; 2) decision-making; and 3) satisfaction with the specified procedure. Due to the rapid expansion of medical imaging technologies, we believe that our field requires standardized criteria to evaluate existing and emerging technologies objectively so that both quantitative and qualitative aspects of their use may be measured and useful comparisons to assess their relative value may occur. Here, we present a 15-item consensus-based survey instrument to assess the utility of novel imaging technologies from the proceduralist’s standpoint.
In orthopaedic trauma surgery, biofilms account for up to 65% of all infections, typically showing increased resistance to antibiotics, and thus novel anti-biofilm approaches need to be developed. Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (PDT) had been recently proposed to combat clinically relevant biofilms using photosensitizers to kill bacteria with light-induced reactive oxygen species. In the first stage of the study reported here, we assessed the efficacy of this treatment type in eradication of biofilms typically present on surfaces of orthopaedic devices (e.g., intramedullary nails and osseointegrated prosthetic implants) by growing them in vitro inside soft lithography-fabricated microfluidic chips, treating them with 5- Aminolevulinic acid-based PDT and evaluating treatment efficacy with optical coherence tomography. PDT outcomes were compared to biofilm response to clinical antibiotic treatment (Vancomycin/Tobramycin 1:1 mixture). The antibacterial efficiency of 5-Aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA)-based PDT was found to be nonlinear dependent on the photosensitizer concentration and the light power density, with lowest parameters still being 17 times more effective than antibiotic-treated groups, reaching 99.98% bacteria kill at 250 mW/cm2 light power density, 100 mg/mL 5-ALA concentration setting. Performed experiments enable the translation of the developed portable treatment/imaging platform to the second phase of the study: PDT treatment response assessment of biofilms naturally grown on orthopaedic devices of clinical patients.
Timely assessment of bone perfusion in orthopaedic trauma surgery plays an important role in successful treatment outcome. For guiding accurate debridement of bones with impaired blood supply, fluorescence-guided surgery (FGS) technique have gained increasingly popularity. Compared to other imaging modalities like computed tomography and nuclear magnetic resonance imaging that are time consuming and less practical during surgery, fluorescence imaging can be performed intraoperatively and is able to visualize the bone blood flow in real time. In order to link the blood flow fluorescence imaging to quantitative bone perfusion numbers, in this study we are using a modified fluorescent microsphere (FM) approach called microsphere quantification using imaging cryomacrotome (mQUIC). Bone perfusion is assessed by identifying the density of deposited microspheres in reconstructed imaging volumes, which are proportional to the regional blood flow. In the rabbit model presented here, cryoimaging was used to scan femurs injected with three colors of microspheres corresponding to three conditions: baseline, post-osteotomy and post-periosteal stripping. Image processing, such as top-hat transform and object-based colocalization, was used to enable accurate counting of FMs to produce their 3D-localization within the bones. FM density volumes were converted to bone perfusion units (mL/min/100g) using the reference organ technique. This study provides a groundwork for direct comparison with our DCE-FI technique for measuring bone perfusion in orthopaedic trauma surgery models.
ICG-based dynamic contrast-enhanced fluorescence imaging (DCE-FI) and intraoperative DCE- magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have been carried out nearly simultaneously in three lower extremity bone infection cases to investigate the relationship between these two imaging modalities for assessing bone blood perfusion during open orthopedic surgeries. Time-intensity curves in the corresponding regions of interest of two modalities were derived for comparison. The results demonstrated that ICG-based DCE-FI has higher sensitivity to perfusion changes while DCE-MRI provides superior and supplemental depth-related perfusion information. Research applying the depth-related perfusion information derived from MRI to improve the overall analytic modeling of intraoperative DCE-FI is ongoing.
In orthopedic trauma surgery, timely assessment of bone tissue perfusion plays a vital role in the successful treatment outcome. Fluorescence-guidance is gaining increased surgical interest, especially with respect to hemodynamic assessment of bone. Intraoperative dynamic contrast-enhanced fluorescence imaging (DCE-FI) not only enables visualization of the perfused areas of the injured bone, but with subsequent analysis using kinetic models, may also provide a valuable quantitative bone blood flow information to a surgeon. In this study, we are validating this quantitative approach with a modified fluorescent microsphere (FM) technique using a custom-built four-channel imaging cryomacrotome. We demonstrate that FMs of four different colors can be accurately detected in controlled phantoms and evaluate their detection accuracy in real blood samples. In a rabbit model of orthopaedic trauma, we show that blood flow measurements using the DCE-FI technique can be compared with the FM technique. This feasibility pilot study provides the groundwork for investigation of the correlation between bone perfusion measurements using DCE-FI and using fluorescent microspheres, in units of ml/min/100g.
This study presents a first clinical translation of bone viability classification technology based on fluorescence imaging and subsequent image texture analysis to provide orthopedic surgeons with intraoperative information for patient treatment optimization.
Forty two patients with high energy open fractures were involved into the study to investigate whether an indocyanine green (ICG)-based dynamic contrast-enhanced fluorescence imaging (DCE-FI) can be used to objectively assess bone perfusion and guide surgical debridement. For each patient, fluorescence images were recorded after 0.1 mg/kg of ICG was administered intravenously. By utilizing a bone-specific kinetic model to the video sequences, the perfusion-related metrics were calculated. The results of this study shown that the quantitative ICG-based DEC-FI can accurately assess the human bone perfusion during the orthopedic surgery.
Significance: Extremity injury represents the leading cause of trauma hospitalizations among adults under the age of 65 years, and long-term impairments are often substantial. Restoring function depends, in large part, on bone and soft tissue healing. Thus, decisions around treatment strategy are based on assessment of the healing potential of injured bone and/or soft tissue. However, at the present, this assessment is based on subjective clinical clues and/or cadaveric studies without any objective measure. Optical imaging is an ideal method to solve several of these issues.
Aim: The aim is to highlight the current challenges in assessing bone and tissue perfusion/viability and the potentially high impact applications for optical imaging in orthopaedic surgery.
Approach: The prospective will review the current challenges faced by the orthopaedic surgeon and briefly discuss optical imaging tools that have been published. With this in mind, it will suggest key research areas that could be evolved to help make surgical assessments more objective and quantitative.
Results: Orthopaedic surgical procedures should benefit from incorporation of methods to measure functional blood perfusion or tissue metabolism. The types of measurements though can vary in the depth of tissue sampled, with some being quite superficial and others sensing several millimeters into the tissue. Most of these intrasurgical imaging tools represent an ideal way to improve surgical treatment of orthopaedic injuries due to their inherent point-of-care use and their compatibility with real-time management.
Conclusion: While there are several optical measurements to directly measure bone function, the choice of tools can determine also the signal strength and depth of sampling. For orthopaedic surgery, real-time data regarding bone and tissue perfusion should lead to more effective patient-specific management of common orthopaedic conditions, requiring deeper penetrance commonly seen with indocyanine green imaging. This will lower morbidity and result in decreased variability associated with how these conditions are managed.
Significance: The effects of varying the indocyanine green injection dose, injection rate, physiologic dispersion of dye, and intravenous tubing volume propagate into the shape and magnitude of the arterial input function (AIF) during intraoperative fluorescence perfusion assessment, thereby altering the observed kinetics of the fluorescence images in vivo.
Aim: Numerical simulations are used to demonstrate the effect of AIF on metrics derived from tissue concentration curves such as peak fluorescence, time-to-peak (TTP), and egress slope.
Approach: Forward models of tissue concentration were produced by convolving simulated AIFs with the adiabatic approximation to the tissue homogeneity model using input parameters representing six different tissue examples (normal brain, glioma, normal skin, ischemic skin, normal bone, and osteonecrosis).
Results: The results show that AIF perturbations result in variations in estimates of total intensity of up to 80% and TTP error of up to 200%, with the errors more dominant in brain, less in skin, and less in bone. Interestingly, error in ingress slope was as high as 60% across all tissue types. These are key observable parameters used in fluorescence imaging either implicitly by viewing the image or explicitly through intensity fitting algorithms. Correcting by deconvolving the image with a measured subject-specific AIF provides an intuitive means of visualizing the data while also removing the source of variance and allowing intra- and intersubject comparisons.
Conclusions: These results suggest that intraoperative fluorescence perfusion assessment should be corrected by patient-specific AIFs measured by pulse dye densitometry.
Due to the lack of objectively measurable or quantifiable methods to assess the bone perfusion, the success of removing devitalized bone is based almost entirely on surgeon’s experience and varies widely across surgeons and centers. In this study, an indocyanine green (ICG)-based dynamic contrast-enhanced fluorescence imaging (DCE-FI) has been developed to objectively assess bone perfusion and guide surgical debridement. A porcine trauma model (n = 6 pigs x 2 legs) with up to 5 conditions of severity in loss of flow in each, was imaged by a commercial fluorescence imaging system. By applying the bone-specific hybrid plug-compartment (HyPC) kinetic model to four-minute video sequences, the perfusion-related metrics, such as peak intensity, total bone blood flow (TBBF) and endosteal bone blood flow to TBBF fraction (EFF) were calculated. The results shown that the combination of TBBF and EFF can effectively differentiate injured from normal bone with the accuracy, sensitivity and specificity of 89%, 88% and 90%, respectively. Our subsequent first inhuman bone blood flow imaging study confirmed DCE-FI can be successfully translated into human orthopaedic trauma patients.
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