To address the growing needs of the automotive industry for low cost solutions to far infrared imaging, a silicon - silicon
germanium (Si/SiGe) quantum well resistive bolometer technology is presented. The Si/SiGe thermistor structure is
epitaxially grown and combines a high temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) with low flicker noise. A TCR of
approximately 3%/K for a Ge fraction of 32% is demonstrated. Quantum mechanical calculations show that a minimum
SiGe layer thickness of 8 nm is needed to avoid degradation caused by ground state shift due to carrier confinement in
the SiGe potential wells. In contrast to most of today's bolometer designs, the optical quarter wave cavity needed to
achieve high absorption of radiation is an integral part of the quantum well thermistor structure. Optimization of the full
bolometer design is made where the interaction between optical absorption, heat capacity and electrical properties is
considered and a design approach targeting the lowest noise equivalent temperature difference is presented. As part of
the optimization, it was found that for the best overall solution, optical absorption can be sacrificed in favor for a smaller
heat capacity.
The next generation of automotive Night Vision Enhancement systems offers automatic pedestrian recognition with a
performance beyond current Night Vision systems at a lower cost. This will allow high market penetration, covering the
luxury as well as compact car segments.
Improved performance can be achieved by fusing a Far Infrared (FIR) sensor with a Near Infrared (NIR) sensor.
However, fusing with today's FIR systems will be too costly to get a high market penetration. The main cost drivers of
the FIR system are its resolution and its sensitivity. Sensor cost is largely determined by sensor die size. Fewer and
smaller pixels will reduce die size but also resolution and sensitivity. Sensitivity limits are mainly determined by
inclement weather performance. Sensitivity requirements should be matched to the possibilities of low cost FIR optics,
especially implications of molding of highly complex optical surfaces. As a FIR sensor specified for fusion can have
lower resolution as well as lower sensitivity, fusing FIR and NIR can solve performance and cost problems.
To allow compensation of FIR-sensor degradation on the pedestrian detection capabilities, a fusion approach called
MultiSensorBoosting is presented that produces a classifier holding highly discriminative sub-pixel features from both
sensors at once. The algorithm is applied on data with different resolution and on data obtained from cameras with
varying optics to incorporate various sensor sensitivities. As it is not feasible to record representative data with all
different sensor configurations, transformation routines on existing high resolution data recorded with high sensitivity
cameras are investigated in order to determine the effects of lower resolution and lower sensitivity to the overall
detection performance. This paper also gives an overview of the first results showing that a reduction of FIR sensor
resolution can be compensated using fusion techniques and a reduction of sensitivity can be compensated.
In this paper we present a comprehensive calculational model for the noise equivalent temperature difference (NETD) of infrared imaging systems based on uncooled bolometer arrays. The NETD model is validated and benchmarked using published performance data of state-of-the-art uncooled infrared bolometer arrays. The calculational model is used to evaluate possible infrared sensor and system design tradeoffs that allow optimization for low-cost infrared systems with improved reliability and lifetime, while still achieving a NETD of about 150 mK, required for pedestrian injury mitigation systems. We propose an approach in which high performance crystalline semiconductor materials with very low 1/f-noise properties and a temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) of 3 %/K are used as thermistor material for the bolometers. The resulting increased bolometer performance can be used to operate the infrared imaging arrays in a vacuum atmosphere with increased gas pressure while still achieving useful NETD levels. The proposed calculational model suggests that a NETD on the order of 150 mK can be reached with uncooled infrared bolometer arrays operating in vacuum pressures on the order of 6 mbar. Such specifications for the bolometer vacuum package dramatically simplify wafer-level vacuum packaging and ease long-term reliability issues, contributing to lowering the vacuum packaging and thus, the overall infrared imaging chip costs.
A new low-cost long-wavelength infrared bolometer camera system is under development. It is designed for use with an
automatic vision algorithm system as a sensor to detect vulnerable road users in traffic. Looking 15 m in front of the
vehicle it can in case of an unavoidable impact activate a brake assist system or other deployable protection system. To
achieve our cost target below €100 for the sensor system we evaluate the required performance and can reduce the
sensitivity to 150 mK and pixel resolution to 80 x 30. We address all the main cost drivers as sensor size and production
yield along with vacuum packaging, optical components and large volume manufacturing technologies.
The detector array is based on a new type of high performance thermistor material. Very thin Si/SiGe single crystal
multi-layers are grown epitaxially. Due to the resulting valence barriers a high temperature coefficient of resistance is
achieved (3.3%/K). Simultaneously, the high quality crystalline material provides very low 1/f-noise characteristics and
uniform material properties. The thermistor material is transferred from the original substrate wafer to the read-out
circuit using adhesive wafer bonding and subsequent thinning. Bolometer arrays can then be fabricated using industry
standard MEMS process and materials. The inherently good detector performance allows us to reduce the vacuum
requirement and we can implement wafer level vacuum packaging technology used in established automotive sensor
fabrication. The optical design is reduced to a single lens camera. We develop a low cost molding process using a novel
chalcogenide glass (GASIR®3) and integrate anti-reflective and anti-erosion properties using diamond like carbon
coating.
Pedestrian fatalities are around 15% of the traffic fatalities in Europe. A proposed EU regulation requires the automotive industry to develop technologies that will substantially decrease the risk for Vulnerable Road Users when hit by a vehicle. Automatic Brake Assist systems, activated by a suitable sensor, will reduce the speed of the vehicle before the impact, independent of any driver interaction. Long Wavelength Infrared technology is an ideal candidate for such sensors, but requires a significant cost reduction. The target necessary for automotive serial applications are well below the cost of systems available today. Uncooled bolometer arrays are the most mature technology for Long Wave Infrared with low-cost potential. Analyses show that sensor size and production yield along with vacuum packaging and the optical components are the main cost drivers. A project has been started to design a new Long Wave Infrared system with a ten times cost reduction potential, optimized for the pedestrian protection requirement. It will take advantage of the progress in Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems and Long Wave Infrared optics to keep the cost down. Deployable and pre-impact braking systems can become effective alternatives to passive impact protection systems solutions fulfilling the EU pedestrian protection regulation. Low-cost Long Wave Infrared sensors will be an important enabler to make such systems cost competitive, allowing high market penetration.
A night vision system must increase visibility in situations where only low beam headlights can be used today. As pedestrians and animals have the highest risk increase in night time traffic due to darkness, the ability of detecting those objects should be the main performance criteria, and the system must remain effective when facing the headlights of oncoming vehicles. Far infrared system has been shown to be superior to near infrared system in terms of pedestrian detection distance. Near infrared images were rated to have significantly higher visual clutter compared with far infrared images. Visual clutter has been shown to correlate with reduction in detection distance of pedestrians. Far infrared images are perceived as being more unusual and therefore more difficult to interpret, although the image appearance is likely related to the lower visual clutter. However, the main issue comparing the two technologies should be how well they solve the driver's problem with insufficient visibility under low beam conditions, especially of pedestrians and other vulnerable road users. With the addition of an automatic detection aid, a main issue will be whether the advantage of FIR systems will vanish given NIR systems with well performing automatic pedestrian detection functionality. The first night vision introductions did not generate the sales volumes initially expected. A renewed interest in night vision systems are however to be expected after the release of night vision systems by BMW, Mercedes and Honda, the latter with automatic pedestrian detection.
The use of a high resolution linear camera film scanner to digitize cine film in order to automate motion
analysis, is discussed. By using high quality optics, high precision mechanics and a 2592 linear array camera,
a resolution of 6 micrometers (.25mu) at a rate of 1 .3 frames per second is achieved. The whole film is
scanned, in order to collect timing and reference marks located anywhere on the film. Through the integration
of the Film Scanner with an analysis computer, a fully automated motion analysis system has been realized.
Access to the requested content is limited to institutions that have purchased or subscribe to SPIE eBooks.
You are receiving this notice because your organization may not have SPIE eBooks access.*
*Shibboleth/Open Athens users─please
sign in
to access your institution's subscriptions.
To obtain this item, you may purchase the complete book in print or electronic format on
SPIE.org.
INSTITUTIONAL Select your institution to access the SPIE Digital Library.
PERSONAL Sign in with your SPIE account to access your personal subscriptions or to use specific features such as save to my library, sign up for alerts, save searches, etc.