Design decisions for today’s complex systems require insights that are traditionally obtained from make and break testing when critical design decisions need to be made. With ever-increasing complexity, a more streamlined workflow that involves multiphysics simulation is essential. This transition is exemplified in polarization-dependent optical systems that are becoming prevalent in AR/VR where stress birefringence can negatively affect the performance of the optical design. To quantify this effect, we have developed a method that utilizes non-uniform stress data from finite element analysis in conjunction with non-uniform gradient index ray tracing to calculate the polarization and wavefront error as part of a wholistic multiphysics simulation analysis. Practical examples will be used to demonstrate the workflow and to analysis the impact of stress birefringence.
Stress birefringence may lead to appreciable wavefront and polarization errors, especially in polarization sensitive systems. The effect is becoming increasingly important, as complex polarization-dependent and polymer-based optical systems become more prevalent, impacting imaging quality in systems such as Augmented and Virtual Reality. Advancements in multiphysics simulation, including the combination of Finite Element Analysis and optical simulation, enable optical designers to simulate and assess the effect of stress birefringence in the final performance of the optical system. We have developed a simulation method that combines 3D fitting of FEA non-uniform stress data with non-uniform gradient index ray tracing, calculating the polarization and wavefront error from the propagation of the wavefront through the system. We demonstrate the model with practical examples, in which we analyze the impact of stress birefringence on the polarization and image quality. The robustness of the technology is demonstrated with different types of stress data and optical systems.
Performance and reliability requirements for modern optical systems dictate that they can no longer be simulated in isolation without reference to external and environmental factors which can adversely impact image quality. Simultaneously, advances in multi-physics simulation techniques have made it possible to couple the impacts of, for example, thermal changes and structural stresses to optical analysis to better predict performance in operational conditions. Applications where light propagates through a fluid surrounding or within an optical system present a particular simulation challenge in this regard, and one that requires new simulation techniques. In the near-field, variations in pressure, temperature, and density of the fluid give rise to corresponding variations in refractive index that will, in turn, induce optical aberrations in a transmitted wavefront. These aberrations can lead to degraded image quality and line-of-sight errors. Accurate and robust analysis of such effects necessitates the coupling of computational fluid dynamics (CFD), for simulation of turbulent flow, shock waves, etc. with ray tracing to compute key optical metrics. Furthermore, this analysis can be combined with far-field atmospheric effects, including emissivity, absorption, scattering, refraction, to build a comprehensive picture of system performance. The ability to perform multi-physics simulations early in the design process provides the opportunity to develop strategies to identify and mitigate negative performance drivers. We present a solution to model the effects of light propagation through optical fluids accurately and combine this with analysis of structural and thermal effects. This solution will be demonstrated in use cases including electro-optic infrared airborne systems.
We present results of a method to calculate the numerical aperture and diffraction-limited Airy radius (AR) in a non-sequential (NSQ) ray-trace simulation which results in <0.05% difference in AR when compared with sequential (SEQ) methodology.
There are some systems that have been traditionally regarded as too complex for simulation, this mindset results in expensive protypes to conduct build and break scenarios. As the need to understand increasingly complex systems evolves, so must the tools. This work seeks to demonstrate that not only is simulation possible with a complex multi-physics problem, but it is accurate, while providing incredible time and cost savings when compared to alternative methods. Simulation of complex systems early in the design and development phases can reduce the number of prototypes created, the number of test flights required and provide design insights earlier in the product life cycle. Design modification while still in the development phase facilitates potential for greater flexibility. Failure to include simulation early, can result in more costly prototyping, greater number of test flights required and the further into a product life cycle issues are discovered, the more limited the options are for modification. Simulation can provide early insights and cost savings.
The lack of accessible tools to design fluid-affected optical systems hampers performance prediction, often causing failures. Modeling such systems must consider optical changes from turbulent media, including pressure, temperature, and density variations, resulting in a non-homogenous refractive index. These variations induce optical aberrations, affecting image clarity. Advanced multi-physics simulations, combining computational fluid dynamics, finite element analysis, and optics modeling, enable designers to predict performance and mitigate potential failures. We showcase the process by analyzing airflow's impact on electro-optic infrared and laser communication systems. This approach allows for early design-stage mitigation strategies. The technology's robustness extends to other fluids and conditions like underwater applications and turbulent flows.
An image-based method used for optical alignment, characterization and testing of the Sentinel 5 AIT OGSE output beams is described here. The OGSEs will be used in the AIT campaign of the Sentinel 5 spectrograph instruments, and each of them comprises two modules assembled in a common mechanical base, one generating point sources and the other an astigmatic optical beam. The methods described in the present work evaluate optical beam parameters such as the spatial and spectral F-numbers, relative beam pointing (rotations about X and Y, Z being the optical axis) and astigmatic beam parameters, among others. Such evaluation is made possible through the acquisition and processing of series of images along the optical axis, by scanning a CCD module with controlled small displacements /1Z imposed by a precision motorized linear stage. Special attention is given in this paper to the alignment of the optical components of the astigmatic module of the OGSEs, performed with the aid of described method. To this end, the astigmatic beam parameters to be optimized – spatial and spectral F-numbers, relative pointing, and astigmatism – are described as a function with linear dependence on each of the system opto-mechanical degrees of freedom, considering small variations around their nominal values. These dependencies can be described by a set of equations arranged in matrix form. Solution of the linear system then provides a direct indication of the dimensional adjustments that must be imposed to each degree of freedom in order to align the optical system from a set of initial values. To calculate each coefficient of the matrix M, the sensitivity of the dependent variables with each of the actuators was previously simulated in raytracing software Zemax OpticStudio. The overall methodology was successfully applied to the alignment phase of the set of OGSEs, with accuracies – based – of ±0.02 for spatial and spectral F-numbers, ±10μm for the distance between foci of the astigmatic beam, and ±0.2arcmin for relative beam pointing.
This paper reports on the development of a sun simulator (SUSI) as an optical ground support equipment (OGSE) for the calibration and characterization (CC) of the Sentinel-5 spectrometers. The illumination system is based on a Xenon continuous light source, a homogenizer and a telescope. A Xenon plasma source is significantly non-uniform, both spectrally and spatially. To meet the stringent spatial homogeneity requirements, a large homogenizer based on a kaleidoscope configuration was designed and manufactured. The proper collimation and large exit pupil are achieved through a mirror-based Offner telescope, avoiding large incidence angles, which would affect spatial uniformity and polarization. SUSI covers a very wide spectral range, from 270 to 2300nm, with an irradiance of 80 mW/cm2. SUSI provides an illuminated exit pupil with a very high spatial uniformity. The collimated beam of 0.27º divergence illuminates an exit pupil 160mm diameter with continuous light, reaching a non-uniformity of irradiance better than 1% for most spectrum (according to IEC 60904-9 definition) which is, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, the highest level of spatial uniformity for large aperture sun simulators. A breadboard was manufactured to test and validate the performance of the homogenizer coupled with the Xenon light. Due to the large diameter of the exit pupil, a set of tests were specifically developed to evaluate the performance across the entire aperture and spectral range. Using a fiber-tip based spectrometer, the exit pupil was scanned to measure the irradiance profile. Results from the breadboard showed a performance better than 1% spatial uniformity at 0.27º divergent beam, for the spectral range 270nm to 800nm. The ray tracing model was compared and validated with the experimental data. Simulation results showed an equivalent performance for SWIR1 and SWIR3 spectral bands. The Critical Design Review (CDR) was successfully achieved, and SUSI is currently being assembled. This work will present the development of the instrument, details on the tests developed to evaluate its performance, and the experimental results of the upcoming test campaign.
Compacting devices is an increasingly demanding requirement for many applications in both nonimaging and imaging optics. “Compacting” means here decreasing the volume of the space between the entry and the exit aperture without decreasing the optical performance. For nonimaging optical systems, compact optics is mainly important for reducing cost. Its small volume means less material is needed for mass-production and small size and light weight save cost in transportation. For imaging optical systems, in addition to the mentioned advantages, compact optics increases portability of devices as well, which contributes a lot to wearable display technologies such as Head Mounted Displays (HMD). After reviewing the different techniques to design compact systems, we analyze here the multichannel strategies. These type of designs split the incoming bundle of rays in different sub-bundles that are optically processed (independently) and then recombined in a single outgoing bundle. The optics volume decreases rapidly with the number of sub-bundles. These designs usually need to be combined with freeform optics in order to get optimum performance.
Recent advances in the Simultaneous Multiple Surfaces (SMS) design method are reviewed in this paper. In particular,
we review the design of diffractive surfaces using the SMS method and the concept of freeform aplanatism as a limit
case of a 3D SMS design.
The Simultaneous Multiple Surface (SMS) method was initially developed as a design method in Nonimaging Optics and later, the method was extended for designing Imaging Optics. We show an extension of the SMS method to diffractive surfaces. Using this method, diffractive kinoform surfaces are calculated simultaneously and through a direct method, i. e. it is not based in multi-parametric optimization techniques. Using the phase-shift properties of diffractive surfaces as an extra degree of freedom, only N/2 surfaces are needed to perfectly couple N one parameter wavefronts. Wavefronts of different wavelengths can also be coupled, hence chromatic aberration can be corrected in SMS-based systems. This method can be used by combining and calculating simultaneously both reflective, refractive and diffractive surfaces, through direct calculation of phase and refractive/reflective profiles. Representative diffractive systems designed by the SMS method are presented.
The Simultaneous Multiple Surface (SMS) method was initially developed as a design method in Nonimaging Optics and later, the method was extended for designing Imaging Optics. We present the extension of the SMS method to design diffractive optical surfaces. This method involves the simultaneous calculation of N/2 diffractive surfaces, using the phase-shift properties of diffractive surfaces as an extra degree of freedom, such that N one-parameter wavefronts can be perfectly coupled. Moreover, the SMS method for diffractive surfaces is a direct method, i.e., it is not based in multi-parametric optimization techniques. Representative diffractive systems designed by the SMS method are presented.
The field of concentrated photovoltaics (CPV) has met some remarkable advances in recent years. The continuous increase in conversion efficiency of multijunction solar cells and new advancements in optics have led to new demands and opportunities for optical design in CPV. This paper is a mini-review on current requirements for CPV optical design, and it presents some of the main trends in recent years on CPV systems architecture.
Non-uniform irradiance patterns created by Concentrated Photovoltaics (CPV) concentrators over Multi-Junction Cells (MJC) can originate significant power losses, especially when there are different spectral irradiance distributions over the different MJC junctions. This fact has an increased importance considering the recent advances in 4 and 5 junction cells. This work presents a new CPV optical design, the 9-fold Fresnel Köhler concentrator, prepared to overcome these effects at high concentrations while maintaining a large acceptance angle, paving the way for a future generation of high efficiency CPV systems of 4 and 5 junction cells.
Non-uniform irradiance patterns created by Concentrated Photovoltaics (CPV) concentrators over Multi-Junction Cells (MJC) can originate significant power losses, especially when there are different spectral irradiance distributions over the different MJC junctions. This fact has an increased importance considering the recent advances in 4 and 5 junction cells. The spectral irradiance distributions are especially affected with thermal effects on Silicone-on-Glass (SoG) CPV systems. This work presents a new CPV optical design, the 9-fold Fresnel Köhler concentrator, prepared to overcome these effects at high concentrations while maintaining a large acceptance angle, paving the way for a future generation of high efficiency CPV systems of 4 and 5 junction cells.
A new design for a photovoltaic concentrator, the most recent advance based on the Kohler concept, is presented. The
system is mirror-based, and with geometry that guaranties a maximum sunlight collection area (without shadows, like
those caused by secondary stages or receivers and heat-sinks in other mirror-based systems). Designed for a concentration of 1000x, this off axis system combines both good acceptance angle and good irradiance uniformity on the solar cell. The advanced performance features (concentration-acceptance products –CAP- about 0.73 and affordable peak and average irradiances) are achieved through the combination of four reflective folds combined
with four refractive surfaces, all of them free-form, performing Köhler integration 2. In Köhler devices, the irradiance uniformity is not achieved through additional optical stages (TIR prisms), thus no complex/expensive elements to manufacture are required. The rim angle and geometry are such that the secondary stage and receivers are hidden below the primary mirrors, so maximum collection is assured. The entire system was designed to allow loose assembly/alignment tolerances (through high acceptance angle) and to be manufactured using already well-developed methods for mass production, with high potential for low cost. The optical surfaces for Köhler integration, although with a quite different optical behavior, have approximately the same dimensions and can be manufactured with the same techniques as the more traditional secondary optical elements used for concentration (typically plastic injection molding or glass molding). This paper will show the main design features, along with realistic performance simulations considering all spectral characteristics of the elements involved.
In order to have a cost-effective CPV system, two key issues must be ensured: high concentration factor and high tolerance. The novel concentrator we are presenting, the dome-shaped Fresnel-Köhler, can widely fulfill these two and other essential issues in a CPV module. This concentrator is based on two previous successful CPV designs: the FK concentrator with a flat Fresnel lens and the dome-shaped Fresnel lens system developed by Daido Steel, resulting on a superior concentrator. The concentrator has shown outstanding simulation results, achieving an effective concentration-acceptance product (CAP) value of 0.72, and an optical efficiency of 85% on-axis (no anti-reflective coating has been used). Moreover, Köhler integration provides good irradiance uniformity on the cell surface and low spectral aberration of this irradiance. This ensures an optimal performance of the solar cell, maximizing its efficiency. Besides, the domeshaped FK shows optimal results for very compact designs, especially in the f/0.7-1.0 range. The dome-shaped Fresnel- Köhler concentrator, natural and enhanced evolution of the flat FK concentrator, is a cost-effective CPV optical design, mainly due to its high tolerances. Daido Steel advanced technique for demolding injected plastic pieces will allow for easy manufacture of the dome-shaped POE of DFK concentrator.
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