Polishing precision optics is highly depending on the operator. Hence, a good result relies on a skilled optician who controls the process chain. This process chain consists of different manual steps such as loading, cleaning and calibrating different machines. To get more control over the process and to speed up the production we currently build an operator independent polishing cell using a single robot. Therefore, we positioned the robot in the middle of the production cell, which enables the robot to reach and manipulate different tools located around the kinematic. One major issues is the lower positioning accuracy and stiffness of an industrial robot in comparison to standard optic machines. Probably the most challenging step concerning accuracy in precision optics manufacturing is the interferometric measurement. In this paper, we present a method using an ESDI Intellium H2000 interferometer, designed for use in unsteady conditions. The robot positions the surface under test without the use of any additional mechanics to enhance the accuracy. The measurement position was manually teached in and approached several times for a statistically significant evaluation. The results show that the robot is sufficiently accurate and stable to perform interferometric measurements. This is a key element towards a completely operator-independent manufacturing cell for precision optics.
Manufacturing precision optics is a complex process chain, which requires many operations on different machines. This is combined with operator-dependent steps such as manual cleaning, loading and measuring. In order to realize this process chain on a smaller shop area and to achieve a higher level of automation we build an operator-independent polishing cell. In this cell, an ABB robot serves as the actuator handling the workpiece. We positioned the robot in the center of the polishing cell to operate several workstations, so the whole process chain works with one single actuator. This arrangement allows a smaller and cheaper system, since no additional handling is required.
The developed concept represents a universally applicable clamping system designed to fit in any measuring machine with any measuring principle. The design ensures that, as long as the lens remains clamped, the measurement results are reproducible. Form errors due to tension remain constant across all measuring and processing steps. The version presented in this paper was developed especially for small lenses in the diameter range up to 40 mm. On the one hand, the design allows for fast measurement of loose lenses. On the other hand, the device can also be used for measurement comparisons, since lenses can also be mounted permanently. In the following, the concept and first results of measurement tests are presented.
Zero point clamping systems are an integral part of the manufacturing industry. They have only yet to find their way into the optical industry. This article compares the hydraulic expansion holder, a clamping system currently used in the optical industry with a zero-point clamping system. The achievable accuracies of both systems are compared over several measurement series. In addition, the process capability evaluation is used for the comparison. Finally, the results are summarized to provide every researcher and practitioner with a foundation for assessing whether zero point clamping systems meet the requirements for the use in optical manufacturing.
Previous work shows the effectiveness of computer controlled polishing (CCP) with the ADAPT tool by Satisloh for correcting form errors in optics manufacturing. This method however has a risk of producing residual errors in the range of mid spatial frequency errors (MSFE). In order to prevent these errors the residual in feed direction is investigated as well as the behavior at different parameters.
Standard interferometers are not suitable for measuring highly aspherical lenses due to the obligatory null configuration. In a tilted wave interferometer (TWI), however, the surface under test is illuminated from multiple directions by a point light source array 1,2. Thus, there is at least one source for each location on the test object, which illuminates the specimen perpendicular so an evaluable measuring signal is generated. In combination with the stitching approach, even large convex apertures can be evaluated. However, the system must be calibrated before measuring with a TWI. During this calibration, a known sphere is measured in several positions. The obtained information describes the entire imaging system with a finite number of Zernike polynomials. High-frequency structures in the system components are not covered and can lead to calibration errors. For this reason, they must be reduced to a minimum. In order to control high-frequency aberrations, the wavefront of each individual lens and the entire system must be determined. In classical methods with a return mirror, many error effects are encountered, such as air turbulences at large distances. The proposed model for the mathematical determination of wavefront aberration uses single measurements of the front and back surface. This reduces measurement uncertainties and simplifies the measuring effort. In addition, the costs for otherwise necessary return mirrors are also omitted. However, the lenses used must be verified additional for impurities or streaks3. Different measurement configurations are compared with the proposed method.
A challenge of coaxial - measurement cavity based - interferometer is to realize an interference contrast in the vicinity of one and to realize a complete elimination of the parasitic reflections. Another challenge, which also exists in non-coaxial setups, is the phase transfer function of extended measurement cavities. Ideally, the surface under test (SUT) and the reference surface (REF) are both exactly imaged onto the detector plane. In practice, SUT and REF have to be placed within the depth of field (DOF), which refers to the object space. The term depth of focus refers to the image space. To avoid confusion, the depth of field might be referred to as DOOF (depth of object field) and the depth of focus might be referred to as DOIF (depth of image field).
However, in many measurement situations, the REF is not placed within the DOOF, which is the small z-range, which is imaged onto the detector plane. Furthermore, the phase transfer function (PTF) of the REF and the image distortion of the REF are both dependent on the focal plane used to image the SUT onto the detector plane. Effects as phase deformation, image distortion and image blurring have to be taken into account when using extended measurement cavities. This can be done by using a look up table (LUT), which contains simulated and/or calibrated data. Thus, the related system error can be subtracted. A remaining challenge is an unknown object under test (OUT), which is measured by using a double path arrangement. The measured wave front depends on the two surfaces of the OUT and the position of the return mirror. For simplicity, a homogeneous substrate and a perfect return mirror might be presumed. The simulation of waves propagating within extended measurement cavities, as well as measurement results, will be discussed. In addition, the influence on the power spectral density (PSD) will be described. This is important for high end correction techniques as e.g. magneto rheological figuring (MRF) and ion beam figuring (IBF).
The manufacturing of optical lenses has various steps. Generally, the manufacturing can be split up into the following steps: the workpiece is pre-ground with a coarse tool; it is then fine-ground with a finer tool. As the final polishing is a demanding and time-consuming process that cannot manage large removal rations not can it equalise rough shape errors, the starting quality and surface quality needs to be as high as possible. According to the current state of technology, ground lenses must be measured with tactile measuring techniques in order to detect shape errors. This is timeconsuming and expensive, and only two dimensional profiles can be measured. DefGO’s project objective is to introduce deflectometry as a new, three dimensional lens measuring standard. A problem with the application of deflectometry is that the object to be measured has to reflect enough light, which is not the case for ground glass with rough surfaces. DefGO’s solution is to wet the lens with a fluid to create a closed reflecting surface.
In the past, steadily increasing demands on the imaging properties of optics have led more and more precise spherical apertures. For a long time, these optical components have been produced in a satisfying quality using classic polishing methods such as pitch polishing. The advance of computer-controlled subaperture (SA) polishing techniques improved the accuracy of spheres. However, this new machine technology also made it possible to produce new lens geometries, such as aspheres.
In contrast to classic polishing methods, the high determinism of SA polishing allows a very specific correction of the surface defect. The methods of magneto-rheological finishing (MRF) [1], [2] and ion beam figuring (IBF) [3], [4] stand out in particular because of the achievable shape accuracy. However, this leads to the fact that a principle of manufacturing "As exact as possible, as precise as necessary" [5] is often ignored. The optical surfaces often produced with unnecessary precision, result at least in increased processing times.
The increasing interconnection of the production machines and the linking with databases already enables a consistent database to be established. It is possible to store measurements, process characteristics or tolerances for the individual production steps in a structured way. The difficulty, however, lies in the reasonable evaluation of the measurement data.
This is where this publication comes in. The smart evaluation of the measurement data with the widespread Zernike polynomials should result in a classification, depending on the required manufacturing tolerance. In combination with the so-called ABC analysis, all surface defects can be categorized. In this way, an analytic breakdown of a - initially confusing - overall problem is made. With the aid of cost functions [6] an evaluation and consequently a deduction of actions is made possible. Thus, for example, the isolated processing of rotationally symmetrical errors in spiral mode, setup times and machining times can be reduced while avoiding mid spatial frequency errors (MSFE) at the same time.
Roughness, shape and structure of a surface offer information on the state, shape and surface characteristics of a component. Particularly the roughness of the surface dictates the subsequent polishing of the optical surface. The roughness is usually measured by a white light interferometer, which is limited by the size of the components. Using a moulding method of surfaces that are difficult to reach, an imprint is taken and analysed regarding to roughness and structure. This moulding compound method is successfully used in dental technology. In optical production, the moulding compound method is advantageous in roughness determination in inaccessible spots or on large components (astrological optics).
The "replica method" has been around in metal analysis and processing. Film is used in order to take an impression of a surface. Then, it is analysed for structures. In optical production, compound moulding seems advantageous in roughness determination in inaccessible spots or on large components (astrological optics). In preliminary trials, different glass samples with different roughness levels were manufactured. Imprints were taken from these samples (based on DIN 54150 „Abdruckverfahren für die Oberflächenprüfung"). The objective of these feasibility tests was to determine the limits of this method (smallest roughness determinable / highest roughness). The roughness of the imprint was compared with the roughness of the glass samples. By comparing the results, the uncertainty of the measuring method was determined.
The spectrum for the trials ranged from rough grind (0.8 μm rms), over finishing grind (0.6 μm rms) to polishing (0.1 μm rms).
The vignetting field stop procedure uses a deflectometric approach to acquire big Optical Surfaces — DaOS — and it offers the possibility to measure nearly any shape or form using a scanning routine. The basic physical measurement principle in DaOS is the vignettation of a quasi-parallel light beam emitted by an expanded light source in auto collimation arrangement with a reflecting element. Thereby nearly any curvature of the specimen, is measurable. Due to the fact, that even sign changes in the curvature can be detected, also aspheres and freeform surfaces of any size can be evaluated.
In this publication the vignetting field stop procedure is discussed. Additionally the deflectometric setup is described. Because of some typical influences of beam deflection to the accuracy of angle measurement by using the vignetting principle, suitable methods of calibration for the sensor are examined and the results of these methods are presented.
Furthermore the technical principle of deflectometric measurements using an angle detecting device is explained inclusive of all random and systematic errors generated by the setup.
The last part of this publication shows the actual result of test measurements with calculated absolute deviation of errors with a large lateral dimension as well as the determination of the maximal achievable lateral resolution by detecting mid frequent structures on flat and spherical test parts with a diameter of 300 mm. These measurements are compared critically to reference results which are recorded by interferometry and further scanning methods.
The most important part in manufacturing precision optics is a reliable measurement procedure which provides results a few times more accurate than the quality to be produced. In general two specific values are important, the repeatability of several measurements which are done in a row and the absolute accuracy which is mostly defined by the systematical error of the measurement device. The repeatability can be improved relatively simple, by increasing the number of measurements and a following averaging step. To increase the absolute accuracy of a measurement device in the field of precision optics is far more challenging.
In this paper several interferometer absolute testing methods to measure flat surfaces are compared. The main objective was to name a value for the achievable accuracy. Therefor four different methods were analyzed: 1. The three flat test, a method which is already used several decades to determine the quality of a flat surface. As a result, two absolute measured profiles, horizontal and vertical, can be calculated.
2. The multi rotation test, an extension of the classical three flat test. The big advantage of this method is a fully three dimensional map of the systematical error.
3. The systematical error calculated by the SSI-A. Hereby several subapertures are measured over the whole surface. The redundant information’s of the overlapping regions can be used to calculate the systematical error of the system.
4. The rotation of the transmission flat relatively to the interferometer. Thereby the rotation unsymmetrical errors can be calculated and subtracted.
The development of high precision methods for the measurement of plano surfaces became of increasing importance over the last years. Recently accuracies in sub-nanometer range have been achieved on samples up to one meter in diameter. The used measurement method was based on direct deflectometry. The main part of the system was an electronic autocollimator measuring local angular displacements on defined traces along the surface of the plano lens. To stabilize the optical path a pentaprism was used. The measurement accuracy of a similar system was evaluated at the Technologie Campus Teisnach. The used system delivered twenty measurement spots along the profile on one diameter. Four diameters were measured at every 45 degrees. An evaluation algorithm was developed to model the complete threedimensional surface out of a small amount of measurement points. Within this modelling Zernike polynomials were used to reconstruct the surface topography. Two different approaches in using the hierarchy of the polynomials were compared.
At first a reference surface was created by rotating a symmetrical averaged curve of all measured profiles. On the residuals of the original measurements to the symmetrical averaged curve a serial development of the error surface was applied with the help of Zernike polynomials. Different order of Zernike terms were tested because we saw a big influence on the result. This surface was added to the reference surface. The results of the two different approaches were compared. To enable us to compare the results of this measurement method to interferometric and optical 3Dprofilometric measurements the data was converted to xyz-format.
Especially in the area of the large mirror manufacturing only a few manufacturers are capable to produce optical surfaces of high quality. Therefore a deterministic process should be developed in the project IFasO. In the field of telescope optics off-axis optical systems are becoming increasingly important. These systems try to avoid an obstructing of the incoming light by moving the secondary mirror out of the primary mirror's optical axis. This advantage leads to an increasing market for this type of optical surface.
Until now off-axis mirrors were difficult or almost impossible to produce. With the processes developed in IFasO, high quality mirrors become possible. For this reason, this paper describes the manufacturing of off-axis surfaces and its problems.
The mirror production used in the project IFasO is based on the specific design of the CNC center developed by the company Optotech. This center UPG2000 is capable of grinding, polishing, sagitta measurement and interferometric measurement in one mounting of the specimen. Usually a large optics has to be transported during their manufacturing after every individual process step. There is always a risk of damage of the specimen. The exact orientation of the surface relatively to the tool position is also required. This takes a huge amount of time and makes up most of the production time.
In this presentation the use of UPG2000 and the next steps within the process development are described. In the current status the manufacturing of large off-axis elements with a PV < λ/10 rms is reproducible.
The manufacturing of optical components more often requires grinding and polishing of non rotational symmetric aspheres
or freeform surfaces. Although there are measurement techniques available for small diameters of some 10th of
mm the measuring of larger surfaces is not or only by extreme efforts feasible. Based on the specification for a large
mirror in semi professional and scientific astronomy with up to 1.2 m diameter and a relative aperture of F# < 1.5 a final
measurement approach for the measurement of radius and shape deviation (parameters of code number 3 of DIN ISO
10110) is described. The combination and evaluation of different sensors and measurement methods for the measurement
of high-precision optical surfaces with concave radii of 3.000 mm to infinity is examined and presented. A reproducibility
and absolute accuracy of better l/12 (PV) and l/40 (rms) is to be achieved. The absolute maximum radius difference
should be smaller than 0,1 %. Thus, also the measurement of aspheric surfaces and free-form surfaces are investigated.
For the measurement of large surfaces, up to 100 individual sub apertures with up to 100 Million Points are recorded by
deflectometric or interferometric measurement techniques and composed algorithmically to a total surface area. A precision
granite portal with multifunctional device carrier will be presented as precise movements are crucial for all tests.
The realization of the required accuracy in the portal-measurement device is verified, documented and compared with a simulation. Results on specimens of 200 and 430 mm diameter are evaluated. The measurements were taken by deflectometry and interferometry on the described test equipment. The validation of the samples with various interferometric procedures was performed. The obtained results are presented, analyzed and discussed.
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