In this paper, silver thin films deposited on SiO2 substrates with a germanium wetting layer fabricated by electron-beam evaporation were studied. The characterization methods of XTEM, FTIR, XRD and XRR were used to study the structural properties of silver thin films with various thicknesses of germanium layers. Silver films deposited with very thin (1-5nm) germanium wetting layers show about one half of improvement in the crystallite sizes comparing silver films without germanium layer. The surface roughness of silver thin films significantly decrease with a thin germanium wetting layer, reaching a roughness minimum around 1-5nm of germanium, but as the germanium layer thickness increases, the silver thin film surface roughness increases. The relatively higher surface energy of germanium and bond dissociation energy of silver-germanium were introduced to explain the effects the germanium layer made to the silver film deposition. However, due to the Stranski-Krastanov growth mode of germanium layer, germanium island formation started with increased thickness (5-15nm), which leads to a rougher surface of silver films. The demonstrated silver thin films are very promising for large-scale applications as molecular anchors, optical metamaterials, plasmonic devices, and several areas of nanophotonics.
Recent studies in monocrystalline semiconductor solar cells are focused on mechanically stacking multiple cells from different materials to increase the power conversion efficiency. Although, the results show promising increase in the device performance, the cost remains as the main drawback. In this study, we calculated the theoretical limits of multistacked 1D and 2D microstructered inorganic monocrstalline solar cells. This system is studied for Si and Ge material pair. The results show promising improvements in the surface reflection due to enhanced light trapping caused by photon-microstructures interactions. The theoretical results are also supported with surface reflection and angular dependent power conversion efficiency measurements of 2D axial microwall solar cells. We address the challenge of cost reduction by proposing to use our recently reported mass-manufacturable fracture-transfer- printing method which enables the use of a monocrystalline substrate wafer for repeated fabrication of devices by consuming only few microns of materials in each layer of devices. We calculated thickness dependent power conversion efficiencies of multistacked Si/Ge microstructured solar cells and found the power conversion efficiency to saturate at 26% with a combined device thickness of 30 μm. Besides having benefits of fabricating low-cost, light weight, flexible, semi-transparent, and highly efficient devices, the proposed fabrication method is applicable for other III-V materials and compounds to further increase the power conversion efficiency above 35% range.
In this paper, high aspect ratio vertically oriented p-silicon (100) micropillars and microwalls were fabricated using the deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) process with the BOSCH recipe of cyclical passivation and etching. Two different patterns were etched; uniform pillar arrays of dimensions ~15µm (height) x 2µm (diameter) and wall arrays of dimensions ~1.5µm (width) x 25µm (height). Three-dimensional (3D) heterostructures of n-ZnO/p-Si heterostructures were fabricated from growing hydrothermally dense arrays of ZnO nanowires (290-400 nm in length and 48-80 nm in diameter) and depositing Aluminum-ZnO (AZO) thin film onto the high aspect ratio vertically oriented p-silicon micropillars and microwalls. The performances of the fabricated heterostructure optoelectronic devices were characterized for different applications including solar cells, photodetectors and field ionization gas sensors.
In this paper, we report on a new method of synthesis for ZnO nanowires on arbitrary substrates and nanowalls on
aluminum coated substrates at ambient conditions. Our method is based on sonochemical reaction of Zinc acetate
dihydrate (Zn(O2CCH3)2-2H2O) Zinc nitrate hexahydrate (Zn(NO3)2-6H2O) and hexamethylenetetramine (HMT,
(CH2).6N4) in aqueous solutions. Repetitive growth cycles resulted in synthesis of ZnO nanowires and nanowalls with
controlled dimensions and large aspect ratios. Extensive analysis by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), energy
dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS) and UV-Visible spectroscopy revealed the crystalline ZnO composition of the
synthesized nanostructures. The proposed method is a rapid, inexpensive, low-temperature, catalyst-free, CMOS
compatible and environmentally benign alternative to existing growth techniques.
We demonstrate a post-growth in-situ chlorine passivation for suppressing surface-dominant transport in Si nanowires
(SiNWs). The leakage current of bridged SiNWs suppressed more than five orders of magnitude as a result of chlorine
passivation while the shape and structural properties of the bridging NWs remain unaffected by the post-growth in-situ
HCl passivation. The chlorine passivated SiNW surfaces were found to be beneficial to enhance the high immunity to
environmental degradation.
KEYWORDS: Silicon, Gold, Field effect transistors, Chemical vapor deposition, Transmission electron microscopy, Thin films, Oxides, Annealing, Scanning electron microscopy, Nanowires
For high speed and performance field effect transistor with high carrier mobility, vertically aligned Si <110> nanowires
is demonstrated by chemical vapor deposition via a vapor-liquid-solid growth mechanism. We found that the
orientation of NWs was changed from <111> direction to <110> direction on a Si (110) substrate with increasing the
growth temperature above ~ 610°C by changing Au-Si eutectic phase. These vertically aligned <110> oriented SiNWs
with significantly high carrier mobility opens up new opportunities for high speed and performance future electronic
device applications.
In this paper, we demonstrate an approach to simultaneously transfer single crystal devices in the shape of vertically
oriented 1-D silicon micropillars, while establishing a direct electrical and mechanical connection to a target surface of
any topology using an innovative harvest/lift-off process coupled with a conducting thermoplastic composing of
polyaniline (PAni) and polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) composite. The mixture acts as a stable anchoring layer and
as a conducting layer for the bottom electrode. The insulating layer comprised of PMMA while the top electrode can be
formed by evaporating thin metal films.
We report a novel method to fabricating single crystal and highly oriented 1-D Silicon micropillars and nanowires and
then transferring them to coat a target surface of any topology using an innovative harvest/lift-off process. This method
enables highly crystalline micro- and nano- pillars of different materials with diverse bandgaps and physical properties
to be fabricated on appropriate mother substrates and transferred to form multilayered 3D stacks for multifunctional
devices. This approach not only ensures the incorporation of any kind of material (with the best device characteristics)
on a single substrate facilitating substrate-free device fabrications on any topology, but also allows the repeated use of a
mother substrate for continual production of new devices. This capability of fabricating substrate-less devices will offer
a universal platform for material integration and allow solar active devices to be coated on various surface topologies
that would be suitable for solar hydrogen generation.
We developed a novel method for three-dimensional heterogeneous integration of devices based on any semiconductor
material on a pliant surface with arbitrary surface profile. Arrays of optical detectors in the form of vertically oriented
micro/nano-pillars with diverse bandgaps and physical properties are fabricated via synthetic bottom-up or
transformative top-down approaches on a single crystal surface and then transferred to a different target surface using a
polymer assisted shear-fracturing process. The original wafers are used repeatedly for generating more devices and are
never consumed. Ohmic contacts with low contact resistance are formed for individual electrical addressing of each
layer of sensors using metals and/or conducting polymer such as PAni and PEDOT:PSS. The method offers an
opportunity for device fabrication with low fill factor contributing to lower dark current, reduced parasitic capacitance
and higher efficiency of light absorption.
In this paper, we present an integrated fabrication process for realizing a switching/modulation mechanism for negative
index materials (NIMs) based on photoconductive coupling. The metamaterial element chosen is an array of regular
copper split-ring resonator (SRR) that was fabricated on two different substrates: high-resistivity silicon (HRS) and
fused silica glass. The switching mechanism proposed can be achieved through tuning the SRR gap and/or substrate
conductivity. The photosensitive material of the SRR structure (amorphous silicon for the glass substrate samples and
intrinsic silicon for the HRS substrate samples) upon illumination generates excess carriers that essentially shunt the gap
capacitance thus diminishing the resonance response significantly. The response in terms of S-parameters is simulated
using HFSS under varying magnitude of optical illumination. Our simulation with a single SRR to demonstrate total
suppression of resonance amplitude with a high extinction ratio is applicable to NIMs comprising of both negative
permeability and negative permittivity without any loss of generality. This method may provide a basis for long-sought
practical applications and devices based on NIM in the fields of ultra-fast communications at RF and optical
frequencies, sensing and imaging promising a potential of dramatically improving the performance of existing phased
array antennas, optical beam-forming networks, antenna remoting and transportation of RF power through fiber-radio.
We fabricated a photo-conducting device with InP nanowires bridged between phosphorous-doped hydrogenated
amorphous silicon electrodes. Photoresponse of the device with DC bias was characterized with a white light source and
a 630nm He-Ne laser. Experimental results from a large number of devices demonstrate a persistent photoconductivity, a
very unique feature of interest. After the light source is shut off, the photogenerated excess carriers recombine very
slowly over time and the effect is manifested in the form of persistent photocurrent that takes hours to decay to the dark
current level in the range of ~15 nA. Quasi exponential decay of the persistent photocurrent is observed with higher
decay rate at the initial stage just after the light source is turned off. Persistent photocurrent magnitude varies with the
magnitude of bias voltage, intensity and wavelength of the optical illumination. Experimental decay constant is
determined from 0.237/min for -8V bias to 0.174/min for -2V bias. The long recombination time can be attributed to the
carrier trapping in the light-induced traps, defects in nanowires and/or in the interface between the nanowires and the
amorphous silicon electrodes. Slow recombination process may also originate from the spatial separation of
photogenerated electrons and holes by built-in electric fields due to band bending at the heterostructure interfaces
between InP nanowire and amorphous silicon electrodes.
The concept of randomly-oriented semiconductor nanowires formed on non-single-crystal substrates is introduced and compared with semiconductor nanowires synthesized on single-crystal-substrates in the framework of epitaxial growth. In principle, epitaxial growth of semiconductor nanowires with the presence of metal-catalysts requires no single-crystal substrates owing to the small size of nanowires. A segment on a substrate from which crystallographic information is
transferred to a single nanowire would only need to be as larger as the cross-section of a nanowire if a specific geometrical alignment for a group of nanowires is not required, suggesting that randomly-oriented semiconductor nanowires be formed on a surface that is characterized with short-range atomic order in contrast to long-range atomic order that exists on the surface of single-crystal substrates. The surfaces exhibiting short-range atomic order can be prepared on non-single-crystal substrates, further suggesting functional devices that utilize randomly-oriented semiconductor nanowires be fabricated on non-single-crystal substrates. Design, fabrication and characteristics of a photoconductor that utilizes an ensemble of randomly-oriented indium phosphide nanowires are described.
We demonstrate an InP nanowire based photodetector laterally integrated between two (111)-oriented vertical silicon surfaces. The nanowires are grown through a simple single step chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process using gold nanoparticles as catalyst with
in-situ p-doping and have been heteroepitaxially bridged between a pair of prefabricated p-doped Si electrodes. Nonlinear current-voltage characteristics are observed. Although this nonlinearity resembles a back-to-back rectifying profile it originates from space-charge limited conductivity of the nanowires. DC photoelectric characteristics of the device were measured under optical illumination (λ=630 nm) above the bandgap energy (1.34 eV or ~925 nm at room temperature) of InP. The variation in photoconductance with varying input optical power demonstrates high sensitivity of the device to optical illumination.
In this paper, we demonstrate the feasibility of incorporating a modulation mechanism for negative index materials
(NIM) at GHz frequency range by means of photoconductive coupling. This leads the way to a fully integrated
monolithic NIM achievable by conventional microfabrication techniques. The photosensitive material was placed in the
gap of the SRR structure and the response in terms of S-parameters was simulated using HFSSTM. Only the SRR
particle was simulated, without any loss of generality to the extension in concept to a NIM comprising of both negative
permeability and negative permittivity.
We present a fabrication method to realize three dimensional (3D) isotropic homogeneous negative index material (3DNIMs)
using a low cost and massively parallel manufacturable and self-assembly technique. The construction of self-assembled
3D-NIM array was realized through two dimensional (2-D) planar microfabrication techniques exploiting the
as-deposited residual stress imbalance between a bi-layer consisting of e-beam evaporated metal (chromium) and a
structural layer of low stress silicon nitride deposited by LPCVD on a p-doped silicon substrate. A periodic continuation
of a single rectangular unit cell consisting of split-ring resonators (SRR) and wires were fabricated to generate a 3D
assembly by orienting them along all three Cartesian axes. The thin chromium and silicon nitride bi-layer is formed as
hinges. The strain mismatch between the two layers at the hinge curls the structural layer containing the SRR upwards.
The self-assembled out-of-plane angular position depends on the thickness and material composing the bi-layer. This
built-in stress-actuated assembly method is suitable for applications requiring a thin dielectric layer for the SRR and/or
active devices.
In this paper, the response to the first harmonic component (2f) of the electrostatic force in single terminal driven electrostatic comb-drive and parallel-plate drive was used as a signal to extract device parameters, namely, the Q- factor and resonant frequency instead of the fundamental (1f) resonance response. It is shown that the difficulty in motional measurement due to electrical cross-talk (parasitics) using 1f measurement can be overcome with a higher signal-to-noise ratio of the 2f signal. Both atmospheric (low-Q) and reduced pressure environment were investigated using off-chip electronics and lock-in amplifier. The measurements were done on the electrostatic comb-drive and capacitive parallel plate sensing plates that form the two core modules of a yaw rate sensor (dual-axis resonator). The effects of AC and DC bias voltages on the measured response have been investigated. Experimental amplitude and phase response data have been analyzed using the Lorentzian curve-fit, Resonance Curve Area (RCA) method, the half-power bandwidth method (3dB) and the Nyquist plot for data fitting and determination of the Q-factor and resonance frequency.
A rapid and accurate static and quasi-static method for determining the out-of-plane spring constraints of cantilevers and a micromachined vibratory sensor is presented. In the past, much of the effort in nanoindentation application was to investigate the thin-film mechanical properties. In this paper, we have utilized the nanoindentation method to measure directly some micromachined device (e.g. microgyroscope) spring constants. The cantilevers and devices tested were fabricated using the MUMPS process and an SOI process (patent pending). Spring constants are determined using a commercial nanoindentation apparatus UMIS-2000 configured with both Berkovich and spherical indenter tip that can be placed onto the device with high accuracy. Typical load resolution is 20micrometers N to 0.5N and a displacement resolution of 0.05nm. Information was deduced from the penetration depth versus load curves during both loading and unloading.
This paper presents a single crystal silicon low-g open loop microaccelerometer designed and fabricated through a spreadsheet optimization methodology. The paper begins with the theoretical formulation and analysis of the differential capacitive accelerometer with full-scale measurement range of +/- 2 g and mg resolution. The `House of Quality' was then used to model and analyze the sensor design variables and device specifications qualitatively. The optimization was implemented using the Excel SolverTM and MATLAB. The effects of electrostatic spring constant on the natural frequency and sensitivity of the accelerometer have been thoroughly discussed. The ratiometric error for this system has been optimized and is well below 2% with a cross axis sensitivity of less than 3%. The operating voltage is 5 V DC. The construction is based on a hybrid two-chip design and the sensing element is wire bonded to a CMOS ASIC.
This paper presents an optimized out-of-plane microgyroscope layout generator using AutoCAD R14 and MS ExcelTM as a first attempt to automating the design of resonant micro- inertial sensors. The out-of-plane microgyroscope with two degrees of freedom lumped parameter model was chosen as the synthesis topology. Analytical model for the open loop operating has been derived for the gyroscope performance characteristics. Functional performance parameters such as sensitivity are ensured to be satisfied while simultaneously optimizing a design objective such as minimum area. A single algorithm will optimize the microgyroscope dimensions, while simultaneously maximizing or minimizing the objective functions: maximum sensitivity and minimum area. The multi- criteria objective function and optimization methodology was implemented using the Generalized Reduced Gradient algorithm. For data conversion a DXF to GDS converter was used. The optimized theoretical design performance parameters show good agreement with finite element analysis.
The principles of dynamic vibration absorbers or shock absorbers are used in a novel way to provide magnification rather than to suppress the unwanted vibration amplitude. The dynamic vibration magnifier (DVM) can be realized as a multi-degree freedom of systems or simply just two degrees of freedom system. The concept of DVM can be applied in the field of microelectromechanical systems, particularly in resonating microsensors for example resonating microgyroscope, micropump and microbridges. These sensors and other micromechanical resonating structures require large displacement or vibration amplitude for improving their working range or sensitivity and hence the DVM can provide an excellent method of magnification. The concept presented in this paper is two-fold; the DVM method can be used as an actuator as well as a sensor.
A low-cost open loop differential capacitive accelerometer with a resolution of 5mg and high sensitivity has been designed with a ful measurement range of +/- 2g. By using the single crystal reactive ion etching and metallization process, beams with high aspect ratio, small air gap for large capacitance variation and low parasitic capacitance have been attained. The fabricated micro accelerometer also offers high voltage output and it has successfully survived a shock of 1000g. The effects of electrostatic spring constant on the natural frequency and sensitivity of the accelerometer have been thoroughly discussed, and obliqueness of the beam cross-section has also been taken into consideration. The radiometric error for this system has been optimized and is well below 2 percent with a cross axis sensitivity of less than 3 percent. The operating voltage is 5V DC. The construction is based on a hybrid two- chip design and the sensing element is wire bonded to a CMOS ASIC.
It has been observed in many MEMS devices that there is a shift in resonant frequency due to voltage bias. The voltage bias may include either AC or DC bias or both. This paper reports on the significant discrepancy between the analytical and experimental resonant frequencies of folded beam micro resonators. Experimental results for the resonant frequency showed a consistent 20% discrepancy over theoretical and finite element results for MUMPs fabricated resonators. This difference in frequency is also seen in SOl fabricated devices. Possible causes of the discrepancy from tapered cross section of the flexure beams, dimensional variations and electrostatic spring effects are discussed and shown to contribute to the significant difference between analytical and experimental values. Inte11iCADTM electrostatic simulation was done to isolate the electrostatic spring effect and compared with the experimental observations. The compliance due to AC voltage has also been observed in SOl and MUMPs resonators and has been presented.
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