A technique to measure the intensity profile of a focused laser pulse at full power is a long-standing desire. High power lasers allow experiments at relativistic intensities (1018 W/cm2 and beyond). At those photon densities all atoms are ionized and therefore it is very difficult to measure directly the peak intensity or the 3D-profile of the focal spot intensity. We would like to present a way to measure it, based on residual atoms in the experimental chamber.
A low-density gas will imply a number of atoms at the laser focal volume. Those atoms will be instantaneously ionized, and the released electrons will move at relativistic speeds driven by the laser field. Plasma effects, at low density, can be neglected, and electrons move independently driven only by the laser field. Nearly 50 years ago, an approach was suggested that is based on relativistic Thomson scattering, which consists of a rich spectrum of Doppler shifted radiation of the laser light, and its harmonics [1]. This reference provides very simple expressions for the scattered Doppler shift vs. intensity. Therefore, such scattered photons give very valuable information about the intensity profile. We propose to measure the Doppler shift of the low order harmonics as an in-situ direct measure of the intensity.
In particular, we will present the first preliminary experimental observation of such a shift of the second harmonic as a non-destructive way to measure the intensity profile of the Salamanca VEGA-2 laser focal profile. The spectrum is consistent with a peak intensity beyond 1018 W/cm2, which correlates well with the expected intensity. This promising result is the theme of this presentation. Details of the experiment, numerical simulations, related experiments and prospects for exploiting relativistic Thomson scattering to develop an in situ intensity profiler will be discussed.
[1] E. S. Sarachik and G. T. Schappert, Phys. Rev. D 1, 2738 (1970).
Laser plasma accelerators are highly versatile and are sources of both radiation and particle beams, with unique properties. The Scottish Centre for Application based Plasma Accelerators (SCAPA) 40 TW and 350 TW laser at the University of Strathclyde has been used to produce both soft and hard x-rays using a laser wakefield accelerator (LWFA). The inherent characteristics of these femtosecond duration pulsed x-rays make them ideal for probing matter and ultrafast imaging applications. To support the development of applications of laser plasma accelerators at the SCAPA facility an adjustable Kirkpatrick-Baez x-ray microscope has been designed to focus 50 eV - 10 KeV x-rays. It is now possible to produce high quality at silicon wafers substrates that can be used for x-ray optics. Platinum-coated (40 nm) silicon wafers have been used in the KB instrument to image the LWFA x-ray source. We simulate the source distribution as part of an investigation to determine the x-ray source size and therefore its transverse coherence and ultimately the peak brilliance. The OASYS SHAODOW-OUI raytracing and wave propagation code has been used to simulate the imaging setup and determine instrument resolution.
Surface enhanced Raman scattering is a promising technique for high sensitivity analytical applications. However, there
are issues which have to be addressed in order to make SERS a reliable technique such as the optimization of conditions
for any given analyte, understanding the kinetic processes of binding of the target molecules to the nanostructures and
understanding the evolution and coagulation of the nanostructures, in the case of colloidal solutions. The background
electrolyte is a very important factor in SERS experiments. Here we report a detailed study of the influence of the
addition of different types of electrolytes on the amplitude and kinetics of the SERS signal in silver colloids. Different
amino acids and organic dyes were used as test molecules in the concentration range of 10-8 to 10-4 M. We found that a
new proposed electrolyte containing HCO3, CO3, Cl and SO4 ions provides very high enhancement of Raman signal in
organic molecules we studied. The advantages of the composite electrolyte are especially noticeable at low concentration
of tryptophan where we observed 108 enhancement of Raman signal, approximately 300 times larger than for the case of
commonly used electrolyte sodium chloride.
Optical-resolution photoacoustic microscopy (OR-PAM) is a novel imaging technology for visualizing optically absorbing superficial structures in vivo with lateral spatial resolution determined by optical focusing rather than acoustic detection. Since scanning of the illumination spot is required, OR-PAM imaging speed is limited by both scanning speed and laser pulse repetition rate. Unfortunately, lasers with high repetition rates and suitable pulse durations and energies are not widely available and can be cost-prohibitive and bulky. We are developing compact, passively Q-switched fiber and microchip laser sources for this application. The properties of these lasers are discussed, and pulse repetition rates up to 100 kHz are demonstrated. OR-PAM imaging was conducted using a previously developed photoacoustic probe, which enabled flexible scanning of the focused output of the lasers. Phantom studies demonstrate the ability to image with lateral spatial resolution of 7±2 µm with the microchip laser system and 15±5 µm with the fiber laser system. We believe that the high pulse repetition rates and the potentially compact and fiber-coupled nature of these lasers will prove important for clinical imaging applications where real-time imaging performance is essential.
Optical-resolution photoacoustic microscopy is a novel imaging technology for visualizing optically-absorbing
superficial structures in vivo with lateral spatial resolution determined by optical focusing rather than acoustic detection.
Since scanning of the illumination spot is required, the imaging speed is limited by the scanning speed and the laser
pulse repetition rate. Unfortunately, lasers with high-repetition rate and suitable pulse durations and energies are
difficult to find. We are developing compact laser sources for this application. Passively Q-switched fiber and microchip
lasers with pulse repetition rates up to 300 kHz are demonstrated. Using a diode-pumped microchip laser fiber-coupled
to a large mode-area Yb-doped fiber amplifier we obtained 60μJ
1-ns pulses at the frequency-doubled 532-nm
wavelength. The pulse-repetition rate was determined by the power of the microchip laser pump source at 808nm and
may exceed 10 kHz. Additionally, a passively Q-switched fiber laser utilizing a Yb-doped double-cladding fiber and an
external saturable absorber has shown to produce 250ns pulses at repetition rates of 100-300 KHz. A photoacoustic
probe enabling flexible scanning of the focused output of these lasers consisted of a 45-degree glass prism in an optical
index-matching fluid. Photoacoustic signals exiting the sample are deflected by the prism to an ultrasound transducer.
Phantom studies with a 7.5-micron carbon fiber demonstrate the ability to image with optical rather than acoustic
resolution. We believe that the high pulse-repetition rates and the potentially compact and fiber-coupled nature of these
lasers will prove important for clinical imaging applications where realtime imaging performance is essential.
Laser wakefield acceleration is a growing area of research with the promise of generating high energy, low divergence,
and short duration electron bunches from tabletop scale accelerators. To date, electron beams with maximum energy of 1
GeV with 2.5% energy spread have been generated using a 3cm plasma channel[1]. However in order to advance the
maximum energy of electron beams beyond this limit, better understanding of the physics and effect of different
parameters on the interaction are essential. In this paper we report on our parametric studies of wakefield electron
acceleration using the 10TW chirped pulse amplified laser system at the Advanced Laser Light Source (ALLS),
Montreal. Laser pulses with energies of ~210 mJ at 33fs were focused using a short (f/6) and a long focal length (f/12)
off axis parabola onto 2mm supersonic helium and nitrogen gas jets at different pressures. Nitrogen with electron
densities of up to 2×1020 cm-3 and helium densities up to 5×1019 were used. Beams with energies of tens of MeV were
observed using the short focal length parabola and beams with energies of several MeV were observed using the long
focal length parabola. We also found that electron beams are more easily generated with higher levels of prepulse,
consistent with previous reports of prepulse generated guiding channels in the plasma[5].
Here we report the results of investigations of Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) from amino acids and
peptides. In order to obtain optimum signals a standard microfluidic chip has been modified with the help of laser
micromachining technique to increase scattering light collection efficiency. We have studied the SERS signals from the
following amino acids: tryptophan (Trp), phenylalanine (Phe) and glycine (Gly) and peptides Trp-Trp and Gly-Gly-Gly.
The optimum conditions for observing the spectrum from these amino acids and peptides have determined. In our studies
the highest enhancement observed is from the amino acid Trp. Large signal enhancements were observed and the lowest
detectable concentration of Trp was estimated to 4·10 -9 M.
A high power passive Q-switched laser and a continuous-wave (CW) green laser both with a neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG) ceramic as the laser material have been demonstrated. Two Cr4+:YAG crystals with 73.9% and 79.6% initial transmission at 1064 nm have been used as saturable absorbers. In Q-switched regime the laser generated up to 209 μJ, 4.5 ns pulses, which corresponds to a peak power of 46.8 kW. In CW regime at 1064 nm the laser generated 11.3 W of output power at a pump power of 21.6 W, corresponding to an optical-optical conversion efficiency of 52.3%. By using a type-II cut KTP crystal, the CW frequency-doubled operation of Nd:YAG ceramic was achieved. The maximum output power of 1.86 W at 532 nm has been obtained. The one-dimensional intensity distribution of the green beam cross-section was observed to be Gaussian. When the output power was 1 W, the M2 factor was measured to be 1.7.
Femtosecond laser ablation is an important process in micromachining and nanomachining of microelectronic,
optoelectronic, biophotonic and MEMS components. It is also important in the damage of optical components and
materials. A thorough understanding of all aspects of femtosecond matter interaction processes in the near-threshold
regime is required if one wants to have complete control of these processes. Two aspects of the interaction process for
metals and semiconductors are examined in detail in the present paper, namely the effect of a more complete model for
the temperature dependent electron thermal conductivity in metals and the avalanche ionization process in
semiconductors. These are included in two temperature and molecular dynamics modeling calculations respectively.
The proper inclusion of these processes allows the model calculations to better reproduce published experimental
measurements for copper and silicon.
Three-dimensional (3D) microstructure writing using the two photon absorption (TPA) process has potential
applications in the fabrication of photonic crystals and micromechanical devices. Ormocore and SU-8, two
commercially available photoresists, were used to produce 3D structures and compare their writing performances.
A 40X objective (NA 0.65) was used to produce high aspect ratio structures with high resolution. The resultant
widths and heights of the lines written in the resists were measured for various exposure conditions. Walls with ~320 nm width and aspect ratios of ~40 were produced in Ormocore. Other standing 3D structures were also
written to demonstrate the capability of the resists.
A Quantum-dot saturable absorber mirror (QD-SAM) has been fabricated by the molecular beam epiiaxy (MBE) technique. Preliminary measurements show that our QD-SAM is a very promising candidate for passive mode-locking a fiber laser or a solid state laser with wavelength in the range of 970-1090nm. The 22%-33% dips in the reflectivity spectrum are observed, which are attributed to quantum dot absorption, indicating the potential for a large modulation
depth and hence generation of ultra-short laser pulses through mode-locking.
Terahertz emission from n-type (100), (110) and (111) InAs crystals have been measured as a function of the sample orientation. Emission was excited using 120 fs Ti:Sapphire laser pulses at an incident angle of 45° with fluences of approximately 1-2mJ/cm2. The data is shown to match the behavior expected for optical rectification at the surface, with small contributions from bulk optical rectification and photo-carrier diffusion. Thus, at fluences employed in the present study, it appears that the dominant mechanism for generating THz radiation is optical rectification at the surface.
Femtosecond laser ablation is an important process in the micromachining and nanomachining of microelectronic, optoelectronic, biophotonic and MEMS components. The process of laser ablation of silicon is being studied on an atomic level using molecular dynamics
(MD) simulations. We investigate ablation thresholds for Gaussian
laser pulses of 800 nm wavelength, in the range of a few hundred
femtoseconds in duration. Absorption occurs into a hot electron bath
which then transfers energy into the crystal lattice. The simulation
box is a narrow column approximately 6 nm x 6 nm x 80 nm with periodic
boundaries in the x and y transverse directions and a 1-D heat flow
model at the bottom coupled to a heat bath to simulate an infinite
bulk medium corresponding to the solid bulk material. A modified
Stillinger-Weber potential is used to model the silicon atoms. The
calculated thresholds are compared to various reported experimental
values for the ablation threshold of silicon. We provide an overview
of the code and discuss the simulation techniques used.
Nanostructured europium-doped yttrium oxide (Y2O3:Eu) films were fabricated using electron beam evaporation, in combination with the Glancing Angle Deposition (GLAD) technique. GLAD makes use of controlled substrate motion during physical vapour deposition (PVD) of a thin film resulting in a high degree of control over the nanostructure of the film. Films were deposited using pre-doped Y2O3:Eu source material. Scanning electron microscopy was used to characterize film nanostructure, while the light emission properties of these films were characterized by photoluminescence measurements. Films of four different nanostructures were used in this study: chevrons, pillars, helices, and normally-deposited solid thin films. For each film nanostructure, measurements of the angular dependence of the intensity of the emitted light, as well as absolute brightness, were obtained and compared. The polarization of the light emitted from the chevron film was also examined using a linear polarizer to analyze the polarization state. Measurements of the selective transmission of circularly polarized light through the helical samples were obtained using variable angle spectroscopic ellipsometry.
Ultrabright and ultrashort x-ray pulses may be used for time resolved studies of phase transitions in materials and potentially for x-ray microscopy applications. Through the interaction of high intensity ultrashort laser pulses (~100fs, 1015 -1017 W/cm2) with solid targets, high temperature and high density plasma is formed on the material surface. Electrons are accelerated in the plasma and multi keV x-rays are generated when they interact with the target material. Such hot electrons are produced from resonance absorption and other nonlinear interactions both at the solid density surface and in the underdense plasma. Initial experimental measurements of keV x-ray emission from microplasmas generated by 130fs, 800nm, 0.5mJ Ti:Sapphire laser pulses focused to intensities of ~1016 -1017 W/cm2 onto a solid target have been carried out. The keV x-ray emission has been characterized both in air and in vacuum. In particular, the scaling of x-ray conversion efficiency and the dependence on pulse energy, angle of incidence and pressure have been studied. The x-ray conversion efficiency improves through the use of a prepulse, indicating that the interactions in the underdense plasma also contribute to hot electron and keV x-ray generation.
Thin films of europium-doped yttrium oxide (Y2O3:Eu), a well-known luminescent material, were grown using electron beam evaporation, in combination with the Glancing Angle Deposition (GLAD) technique. GLAD makes use of controlled substrate motion during physical vapour deposition (PVD), resulting in a high degree of control over the nanostructure of the film. Until recently GLAD had not been used with luminescent materials. Films were deposited using pre-doped Y2O3:Eu source material, with either 4.0% (wt) Eu doping or 5.6% (wt) Eu doping. The nanostructure of these films was characterized through scanning electron microscopy, while the light emission properties of these films was characterized by photoluminescence measurements. In order to optimize the light emission properties of the films the partial pressure of oxygen during the deposition of the films was varied. Films were deposited on both silicon and sapphire substrates, in order to compare how different substrates affect the growth and light emission of the films.
The capabilities of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) for analysis of water samples with low energy laser pulses was investigated using 355 nm, 10 ns pulses with energies from 3.5 to 100 mJ. In order to optimize the detection limit, the spatial and temporal dependence of the line emission from a sodium solution water jet target in air has been measured, allowing the identification of optimum gating time and observation position for sodium. Careful characterization of the background noise sources in the LIBS detection system has been undertaken, including the continuum emission from the plasma, dark current in the detector array and electron emission noise in the image intensifier. The energy dependence of the limit of detection for sodium in water has been investigated. Single shot detection limits for sodium have been measured ranging from 2 ppm to 200 ppm for laser pulse energies of 100 mJ to 3.5 mJ respectively. For aluminium, the detection limits are over an order of magnitude poorer than for sodium.
Laser micromachining may be used for a variety of applications including drilling holes or creating trenches in dielectric materials. Cracking around the ablated features can be a significant problem for many applications, particularly when micromachining glass. One possible method for crack reduction, investigated here, involves heating of the substrate during ablation. This leads to a more ductile material that is more able to withstand the thermal shock of the ablation process. In order to increase the ductility, the glass targets are heated by physical contact with an electric heating element. The results of micromachining are analyzed using an optical microscope. The amount of cracking is quantified in terms of the number of visible radial cracks. For nanosecond micromachining, a reduction in the number of cracks and an improvement in the quality of the holes are observed as the glass is heated. The relative improvement using heated substrates and nanosecond pulses is also compared to femtosecond ablation of room temperature substrates.
Numerical studies of the interaction of 500 fs 248nm laser pulses with aluminum have been carried out at laser fluences
below 10 J/cm2. These results are compared with experimental measurements of interactions under similar conditions.
The calculated damage and ablation thresholds and material removal rate agrees reasonably well with those from
experiments.
In this paper we explore laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) at relatively low energies in the range 10 -
350 tJ. We present measurements ofthe threshold laser energy needed for LIBS and the scaling ofplasma size and crater
size with energy. The effects of the laser pulse length and gating of the detector on the LIB spectra are studied and we also
assess the use ofmicrojoule LIBS for the identification ofAl alloys.
Laser micromachining is a flexible technique for precision patterning of surfaces in microelectronics, microelectromechanical
devices and integrated optical devices. Typical applications include drilling of holes, cutting of conducting
lines or shaping of micro component surfaces. The resolution, edge finish and residual damage to the surrounding and
underlying structures depend on a variety of parameters including laser energy, intensity, pulse width and wavelength.
Femtosecond pulses are of particular interest because the limited time of interaction limits the lateral expansion of the plasma
and the inward propagation of the heat front. Thus, very small spot size can be achieved and minimal heating and damage of
underlying layers can be obtained. An additional advantage of femtosecond pulses is that multiphoton absorption leads to
efficient coupling of energy to many materials independent of the linear reflectivity of the surface. Thus metals and
transmitting dielectrics, which are difficult to micromachine, may be machined with such pulses. The coupling is improved
further by employing ultraviolet wavelength laser pulses where the linear absorption typically is much higher than for visible
and infrared laser pulses. To explore these advantages, we have initiated a study of the interaction of 250nm femtosecond
laser pulses with metals. The laser pulses are obtained by generating the third harmonic from a femtosecond Ti:sapphire laser
operating at 750nm. The pulses are focused to various intensities in the range of 1010Wcm2 to 1015 Wcm2 using reflective
and refractive microscope objectives and ablation thresholds and ablation rates have been determined for a few metals. In
addition the ability to control feature size and produce submicron holes and lines have been investigated. The results are
presented and compared to results obtained using infrared and visible femtosecond laser pulses.
A process has been developed for the purpose of fabricating 0.1 micron linewidth interdigital electrode patterns based on proximity x-ray lithography using a laser-plasma source. Such patterns are required in the manufacture of surface acoustic wave devices. The x-ray lithography was carried out using emission form a Cu plasma produced by a 15Hz, 248nm KrF excimer laser. A temporally multiplexed 50ps duration seed pulse was used to extract the KrF laser energy producing a train of several 50ps pulses spaced approximately 2ns apart within each output pulse. Each short pulse within the train gave the high focal spot intensity required to achieve high efficiency emission of keV x-rays. The first stage of the overall process involves the fabrication of x-ray mask patterns on 1 micron thick Si3N4 membranes using 3-beam lithography followed by gold electroplating. The second stage involves x-ray exposure of a chemically amplified resist through the mask patterns to produce interdigital electrode patterns with 0.1 micron linewidth. Helium background gas and thin polycarbonate/aluminum filters are employed to prevent debris particles from the laser-plasma source form reaching the exposed sample. A computer control system fires the laser and monitors the x-ray flux from the laser-plasma source to insure the desired x-ray exposure is achieved at the resist. In order to reduce diffusion effects in the chemically amplified resist during the post exposure bake the temperature had to be reduced from that normally used. Good reproduction of 0.1 micron linewidth patterns into the x-ray resist was obtained once the exposure parameters and post exposure bake were optimized. A compact exposure station using flowing helium at atmospheric pressure has also been developed for the process, alleviating the need for a vacuum chamber. The details of the overall process and the compact exposure station will be presented.
Numerical studies of the interaction of KrF laser pulses with pulselengths ranging from 10 fs to 15 ns with aluminum have been carried out at intensities around the threshold for damage. These results are compared with experimental measurements of interactions with pulse lengths of picosecond to nanosecond duration. The calculated damage thresholds and ablation depths agree reasonably well with those from experiments. For a material irradiated by femtosecond and picosecond pulses the damage threshold is sensitive to the material's electron-phonon coupling constant. The value of electron-phonon coupling constant which gives good agreement is close to that calculated based on free electron theory.
A process for the fabrication of surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices with line widths of 250 nm and less, based on x-ray lithography using a laser-plasma source has been developed. The x-ray lithography process is based on keV x-ray emission from Cu plasma produced by 15 Hz, 50 ps, 248 nm KrF excimer laser pulses. The full structure of a 2 GHz surface acoustic wave filter with interdigital transducers in a split-electrode geometry has been manufactured. The devices require patterning a 150 nm thick aluminum layer on a LiNbO3 substrate with electrodes 250 nm wide. The manufacturing process has two main steps: x-ray mask fabrication employing e-beam lithography and x-ray lithography to obtain the final device. The x-ray masks are fabricated on 1 micrometers thick membranes of Si2N4. The line patterns on the masks are written into PMMA resist using a scanning electron microscope which has been interfaced to a personal computer equipped to control the x and y scan voltages. The opaque regions of the x-ray mask are then formed by electroplating fine grain gold into the open spaces in the etched PMMA. The mask and sample are mounted in an exposure cassette with a fixed spacer of 10 micrometers separating them. The sample consists of a LiNbO3 substrate coated with Shipley XP90104C x-ray resist which has been previously characterized. The x-ray patterning is carried out in an exposure chamber with flowing helium background gas in order to minimize debris deposition on the filters. After etching the x-ray resist, the final patterns are produced using metallization and a standard lift-off technique. The SAW filters are then bonded and packaged onto impedance matching striplines. The resultant devices are tested using Scalar Network Analyzers. The final devices produced had a center frequency of 1.93 GHz with a bandwidth of 98 MHz, close to the expected performance of our simple design.
A keV x-ray source based on plasma production using a high repetition rate picosecond KrF laser has been developed. By using a train of 50 ps input pulses to extract a KrF amplifier module an output train of pulses of energy up to 200 mJ has been obtained leading to generation of 1.15 keV x-rays from solid copper targets with a conversion efficiency from laser light to x-rays of over 1.5%. Iron and nickel targets yield softer x-ray spectra with higher conversion efficiencies of 2.3% and 1.8% respectively. When operated at 20 Hz in one atmosphere of background helium gas a point source of 1.15 keV x-rays with an average power of 45 mW is obtained. Initial characterization of the sensitivities of a positive resist, PBS, and a negative resist, Shipley XP90104C, have been carried out to demonstrate the effectiveness of the source.
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