The Simons Observatory (SO) is a cosmic microwave background experiment composed of three 0.42 m Small Aperture Telescopes (SATs) and one 6 m Large Aperture Telescope (LAT) in the Atacama Desert of Chile. The Large Aperture Telescope Receiver (LATR) was integrated into the LAT in August 2023; however, because mirrors were not yet installed, the LATR optical chain was capped at the 4K stage. In this dark configuration we are able to characterize many elements of the instrument without contributions from atmospheric noise. Here we show this noise is below the required upper limit and its features are well described with a simple noise model. Maps produced using this noise model have properties that are in good agreement with the white noise levels of our dark data. Additionally, we show that our nominal scan strategy has a minimal effect on the noise when compared to the noise when the telescope is stationary.
The Simons Observatory (SO) is a ground-based cosmic microwave background (CMB) survey experiment that consists of three 0.5 m small-aperture telescopes (SATs) and one 6 m large-aperture telescope (LAT), sited at an elevation of 5200 m in the Atacama Desert in Chile. In order to meet the sensitivity requirements set for next-generation CMB telescopes, the LAT will deploy 30,000 transition edge sensor (TES) detectors at 100 mK across 7 optics tubes (OT), all within the Large Aperture Telescope Receiver (LATR). Additionally, the LATR has the capability to expand to 62,000 TES across 13 OTs. The LAT will be capable of making arcminute-resolution observations of the CMB, with detector bands centered at 30, 40, 90, 150, 230, and 280 GHz. We have rigorously tested the LATR systems prior to deployment in order to fully characterize the instrument and show that it can achieve the desired sensitivity levels. We show that the LATR meets cryogenic and mechanical requirements, and maintains acceptably low baseline readout noise.
The Simons Observatory (SO) will observe the cosmic microwave background (CMB) from Cerro Toco in the Atacama Desert of Chile. The observatory consists of three 0.5m Small Aperture Telescopes (SATs) and one 6m Large Aperture Telescope (LAT), covering six frequency bands centering around 30, 40, 90, 150, 230, and 280 GHz. The SO observations will transform our understanding of our universe by characterizing the properties of the early universe, measuring the number of relativistic species and the mass of neutrinos, improving our understanding of galaxy evolution, and constraining the properties of cosmic reionization.1 As a critical instrument, the Large Aperture Telescope Receiver (LATR) is designed to cool ~60,000 transition-edge sensors (TES)2 to <100mK on a 1.7m diameter focal plane. The unprecedented scale of the LATR drives a complex design.3-5 In this paper, We will first provide an overview of the LATR design. Integration and validation of the LATR design is discussed in detail, including mechanical strength, optical alignment, and cryogenic performance of the five cryogenic stages (80 K, 40 K, 4 K, 1 K, and 100 mK). We will also discuss the microwave- multiplexing (μMux) readout system implemented in the LATR and demonstrate operation of dark, prototype TES bolometers. The μMux readout technology enables one coaxial loop to read out Ο(103) TES detectors. Its implementation within the LATR serves as a critical validation for the complex RF chain design. The successful validation of the LATR performance is not only a critical milestone within the Simons Observatory, it also provides a valuable reference for other experiments, e.g. CCAT-prime6 and CMB-S4.7, 8
The Simons Observatory (SO) will make precision temperature and polarization measurements of the cosmic
microwave background (CMB) using a series of telescopes which will cover angular scales between 1 arcminute
and tens of degrees, contain over 40,000 detectors, and sample frequencies between 27 and 270 GHz. SO will
consist of a six-meter-aperture telescope coupled to over 20,000 detectors along with an array of half-meter
aperture refractive cameras, coupled to an additional 20,000+ detectors. The unique combination of large and
small apertures in a single CMB observatory, which will be located in the Atacama Desert at an altitude of
5190 m, will allow us to sample a wide range of angular scales over a common survey area. SO will measure
fundamental cosmological parameters of our universe, find high redshift clusters via the Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect,
constrain properties of neutrinos, and seek signatures of dark matter through gravitational lensing. The complex
set of technical and science requirements for this experiment has led to innovative instrumentation solutions
which we will discuss. The large aperture telescope will couple to a cryogenic receiver that is 2.4 m in diameter
and over 2 m long, creating a number of interesting technical challenges. Concurrently, we are designing an array
of half-meter-aperture cryogenic cameras which also have compelling design challenges. We will give an overview
of the drivers for and designs of the SO telescopes and the cryogenic cameras that will house the cold optical
components and detector arrays.
The Simons Observatory (SO) will make precision temperature and polarization measurements of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) using a series of telescopes which will cover angular scales between one arcminute and tens of degrees, contain over 60,000 detectors, and sample frequencies between 27 and 270 GHz. SO will consist of a six-meter-aperture telescope coupled to over 30,000 detectors along with an array of half-meter aperture refractive cameras, which together couple to an additional 30,000+ detectors. SO will measure fundamental cosmological parameters of our universe, find high redshift clusters via the Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect, constrain properties of neutrinos, and seek signatures of dark matter through gravitational lensing. In this paper we will present results of the simulations of the SO large aperture telescope receiver (LATR). We will show details of simulations performed to ensure the structural integrity and thermal performance of our receiver, as well as will present the results of finite element analyses (FEA) of designs for the structural support system. Additionally, a full thermal model for the LATR will be described. The model will be used to ensure we meet our design requirements. Finally, we will present the results of FEA used to identify the primary vibrational modes, and planned methods for suppressing these modes. Design solutions to each of these problems that have been informed by simulation will be presented.
The Simons Observatory (SO) will make precision temperature and polarization measurements of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) using a series of telescopes which will cover angular scales between one arcminute and tens of degrees and sample frequencies between 27 and 270 GHz. Here we present the current design of the large aperture telescope receiver (LATR), a 2.4m diameter cryostat that will be mounted on the SO 6m telescope and will be the largest CMB receiver to date. The cryostat size was chosen to take advantage of the large focal plane area having high Strehl ratios, which is inherent to the Cross-Dragone telescope design. The LATR will be able to accommodate thirteen optics tubes, each having a 36 cm diameter aperture and illuminating several thousand transition-edge sensor (TES) bolometers. This set of equipment will provide an opportunity to make measurements with unparalleled sensitivity. However, the size and complexity of the LATR also pose numerous technical challenges. In the following paper, we present the design of the LATR and include how we address these challenges. The solutions we develop in the process of designing the LATR will be informative for the general CMB community, and for future CMB experiments like CMB-S4.
The Simons Observatory (SO) will provide precision polarimetry of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) using a series of telescopes which will cover angular scales from arc-minutes to tens of degrees, contain over 60,000 detectors, and observe in frequency bands between 27 GHz and 270 GHz. SO will consist of a six-meter-aperture telescope initially coupled to roughly 35,000 detectors along with an array of half-meter aperture refractive cameras, coupled to an additional 30,000+ detectors.
The large aperture telescope receiver (LATR) is coupled to the SO six-meter crossed Dragone telescope and will be 2.4 m in diameter, weigh over 3 metric tons, and have five cryogenic stages (80 K, 40 K, 4 K, 1 K and 100 mK). The LATR is coupled to the telescope via 13 independent optics tubes containing cryogenic optical elements and detectors. The cryostat will be cooled by two Cryomech PT90 (80 K) and three Cryomech PT420 (40 K and 4 K) pulse tube cryocoolers, with cooling of the 1 K and 100 mK stages by a commercial dilution refrigerator system. The secondo component, the small aperture telescope (SAT), is a single optics tube refractive cameras of 42 cm diameter. Cooling of the SAT stages will be provided by two Cryomech PT420, one of which is dedicated to the dilution refrigeration system which will cool the focal plane to 100 mK. SO will deploy a total of three SATs.
In order to estimate the cool down time of the camera systems given their size and complexity, a finite difference code based on an implicit solver has been written to simulate the transient thermal behavior of both cryostats. The result from the simulations presented here predict a 35 day cool down for the LATR. The simulations suggest additional heat switches between stages would be effective in distribution cool down power and reducing the time it takes for the LATR to reach its base temperatures. The SAT is predicted to cool down in one week, which meets the SO design goals.
The Simons Observatory will consist of a single large (6 m diameter) telescope and a number of smaller (∼0.5 m diameter) refracting telescopes designed to measure the polarization of the Cosmic Microwave Background to unprecedented accuracy. The large aperture telescope is the same design as the CCAT-prime telescope, a modified Crossed Dragone design with a field-of-view of over 7.8 degrees diameter at 90 GHz. This paper presents an overview of the cold reimaging optics for this telescope and what drove our choice of 350–400 mm diameter silicon lenses in a 2.4 m cryostat over other possibilities. We will also consider the future expandability of this design to CMB Stage-4 and beyond.
The next generation Advanced ACTPol (AdvACT) experiment is currently underway and will consist of four Transition Edge Sensor (TES) bolometer arrays, with three operating together, totaling ~ 5800 detectors on the sky. Building on experience gained with the ACTPol detector arrays, AdvACT will utilize various new technologies, including 150 mm detector wafers equipped with multichroic pixels, allowing for a more densely packed focal plane. Each set of detectors includes a feedhorn array of stacked silicon wafers which form a spline profile leading to each pixel. This is then followed by a waveguide interface plate, detector wafer, back short cavity plate, and backshort cap. Each array is housed in a custom designed structure manufactured from high purity copper and then gold plated. In addition to the detector array assembly, the array package also encloses cryogenic readout electronics. We present the full mechanical design of the AdvACT high frequency (HF) detector array package along with a detailed look at the detector array stack assemblies. This experiment will also make use of extensive hardware and software previously developed for ACT, which will be modified to incorporate the new AdvACT instruments. Therefore, we discuss the integration of all AdvACT arrays with pre-existing ACTPol infrastructure.
E. Grace, J. Beall, J. Bond, H. Cho, R. Datta, M. Devlin, R. Dünner , A. Fox, P. Gallardo, M. Hasselfield, S. Henderson, G. Hilton, A. Hincks, R. Hlozek, J. Hubmayr, K. Irwin, J. Klein, B. Koopman, D. Li, M. Lungu, L. Newburgh, Jo. Nibarger, M. Niemack, L. Maurin, J. McMahon, S. Naess, L. Page, C. Pappas, B. Schmitt, J. Sievers, S. Staggs, R. Thornton, J. Van Lanen, E. Wollack
ACTPol is the polarization-sensitive receiver on the Atacama Cosmology Telescope. ACTPol enables sensitive millimeter wavelength measurements of the temperature and polarization anisotropies of the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) at arcminute angular scales. These measurements are designed to explore the process of cosmic structure formation, constrain or determine the sum of the neutrino masses, probe dark energy, and provide a foundation for a host of other cosmological tests. We present an overview of the first season of ACTPol observations focusing on the optimization and calibration of the first detector array as well as detailing the on-sky performance.
The six-meter Atacama Cosmology Telescope (ACT) in Chile was built to measure the cosmic microwave background
(CMB) at arcminute angular scales. We are building a new polarization sensitive receiver for ACT
(ACTPol). ACTPol will characterize the gravitational lensing of the CMB and aims to constrain the sum of the
neutrino masses with ~ 0.05 eV precision, the running of the spectral index of inflation-induced fluctuations,
and the primordial helium abundance to better than 1 %. Our observing fields will overlap with the SDSS BOSS
survey at optical wavelengths, enabling a variety of cross-correlation science, including studies of the growth of
cosmic structure from Sunyaev-Zel'dovich observations of clusters of galaxies as well as independent constraints
on the sum of the neutrino masses. We describe the science objectives and the initial receiver design.
The Atacama Cosmology Telescope (ACT) is designed to measure temperature anisotropies of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) at arcminute resolution. It is the first CMB experiment to employ a 32×32 close-packed array of free-space-coupled transition-edge superconducting bolometers. We describe the organization of the telescope systems and software for autonomous, scheduled operations. When paired with real-time data streaming and display, we are able to operate the telescope at the remote site in the Chilean Altiplano via the Internet from North America. The telescope had a data rate of 70 GB/day in the 2007 season, and the 2008 upgrade to three arrays will bring this to 210 GB/day.
The Atacama Cosmology Telescope is a six meter, off-axis Gregorian telescope for measuring the cosmic microwave background at arcminute resolutions. The Millimeter Bolometer Array Camera (MBAC) is its current science instrument. Erected in the Atacama Desert of Chile in early 2007, it saw first light with the MBAC on 22 October 2007. In this paper we review its performance after one month of observing, focusing in particular on issues surrounding the alignment of the optical system that impact the sensitivity of the experiment. We discuss the telescope motion, pointing, and susceptibility to thermal distortions. We describe the mirror alignment procedure, which has yielded surface deviations of 31 μm rms on the primary and 10 μm rms on the secondary. Observations of planets show that the optical performance is consistent with the telescope design parameters. Preliminary analysis measures a solid angle of about 215 nanosteradians with a full width at half maximum of 1.44 arcminutes at 145 GHz.
The Atacama Cosmology Telescope observes the Cosmic Microwave Background with arcminute resolution
from the Atacama desert in Chile. For the first observing season one array of 32 x 32 Transition Edge
Sensor (TES) bolometers was installed in the primary ACT receiver, the Millimeter Bolometer Array Camera
(MBAC). In the next season, three independent arrays working at 145, 220 and 280 GHz will be installed in
MBAC. The three bolometer arrays are each coupled to a time-domain multiplexer developed at the National
Institute of Standard and Technology, Boulder, which comprises three stages of superconducting quantum
interference devices (SQUIDs). The arrays and multiplexers are read-out and controlled by the Multi Channel
Electronics (MCE) developed at the University of British Columbia, Vancouver.
A number of experiments plan to use the MCE as read-out electronics and thus the procedure for tuning the
three stage SQUID system is of general interest. Here we describe the automated array tuning procedures and
algorithms we have developed. During array tuning, the SQUIDs are biased near their critical currents. SQUID
feedback currents and lock points are selected to maximize linearity, dynamic range, and gain of the SQUID
response curves. Our automatic array characterization optimizes the tuning of all three stages of SQUIDs by
selecting over 1100 parameters per array during the first observing season and over 2100 parameters during the
second observing season. We discuss the timing, performance, and reliability of this array tuning procedure
as well as planned and recently implemented improvements.
The 6-meter Atacama Cosmology Telescope will map the cosmic microwave background at millimeter wavelengths.
The commissioning instrument for the telescope, the Millimeter Bolometer Array Camera, is based on a
refractive optical system which simultaneously images three separate fields of view at three different frequencies:
145, 220, and 280 GHz. Each frequency band contains around twelve individual optical elements at five different
temperature stages ranging from 300 K to 300 mK and a 32 x 32 array of Transition Edge Sensor bolometers at
300 mK. We discuss the design of the close-packed on-axis optical design of the three frequencies. The thermal
design and performance of the system are presented in the context of the scientific requirements and observing
schedule. A major part of the design was the incorporation of multiple layers of magnetic shielding. We discuss
the performance of the 145 GHz optical system in 2007 and the implementation of the additional two frequency
channels in 2008.
The Atacama Cosmology Telescope (ACT) aims to measure the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) temperature
anisotropies on arcminute scales. The primary receiver for ACT is the Millimeter Bolometer Array
Camera (MBAC). The MBAC is comprised of three 32×32 transition edge sensor (TES) bolometer arrays, each
observing the sky with an independent set of band-defining filters. The MBAC arrays will be the largest pop-up
detector arrays fielded, and among the largest TES arrays built. Prior to its assembly into an array and installation
into the MBAC, a column of 32 bolometers is tested at ~ 0.4 K in a quick-turn-around dip probe. In
this paper we describe the properties of the ACT bolometers as revealed by data from those tests, emphasizing
a characterization that accounts for both the complex impedance and the noise as a function of frequency.
The Millimeter Bolometer Array Camera (MBAC) was commissioned in the fall of 2007 on the new 6-meter
Atacama Cosmology Telescope (ACT). The MBAC on the ACT will map the temperature anisotropies of the
Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) with arc-minute resolution. For this first observing season, the MBAC
contained a diffraction-limited, 32 by 32 element, focal plane array of Transition Edge Sensor (TES) bolometers
for observations at 145 GHz. This array was coupled to the telescope with a series of cold, refractive, reimaging
optics. To meet the performance specifications, the MBAC employs four stages of cooling using closed-cycle
3He/4He sorption fridge systems in combination with pulse tube coolers. In this paper we present the design of
the instrument and discuss its performance during the first observing season. Finally, we report on the status
of the MBAC for the 2008 observing season, when the instrument will be upgraded to a total of three separate
1024-element arrays at 145 GHz, 220 GHz and 280 GHz.
The Institute for Astronomy has developed and recently installed a high-resolution cross-dispersed echelle spectrograph for use at one of the coudé foci of the AEOS 3.7-meter telescope, operated by the Air Force Space Command atop Mt. Haleakala on the island of Maui. The spectrograph features an optical arm for the wavelength range 0.5 - 1.0 μm and an infrared arm for the range 1.0 - 2.5 μm. We review the spectrograph design and present commissioning results obtained with both the visible and infrared arms. Both channels use a white-pupil collimator design to maximize grating efficiency and to limit the size of the camera optics. The visible arm of the spectrograph uses deep-depletion CCDs optimized for operation near 1.0 μm. The infrared detector is a 2048 x 2048 HgCdTe array (HAWAII-2) that has been developed by the Rockwell Science Center for this project. Both channels are equipped with slit-viewing cameras for object acquisition and control of a fast guiding tip-tilt mirror located at a pupil image in the spectrograph fore optics.
We are developing a high-resolution cross-dispersed echelle spectrograph for installation at one of the coude foci of the new AEOS 3.67 meter telescope, operated by the Air Force Space Command on Haleakala, Maui, Hawaii. The spectrograph will consist of two major subsystems: an optical arm for the wavelength range 0.5-1.0 micrometers and an IR arm for the range 1.0-2.5 micrometers . Both arms of the spectrograph use a white- pupil collimator design to maximize grating efficiency and to limit the size of the camera optics. The optical arm of the spectrograph will use deep-depletion CCDs optimized for operation near 1.0 micrometers . The IR detector will be a 2048 by 2048 HgCdTe array that has bene developed by the Rockwell Science Center for this project. Both the optical and IR arms of the spectrograph will be equipped with slit-viewing cameras for object acquisition and control of a fast guiding tip-tilt mirror located in a pupil image in the spectrograph fore optics.
We present a high-resolution gimbal mirror mechanism which will perform the beam steering for the on-instrument wavefront sensor section of the Gemini near-IR imager. In turn, the wavefront sensor will generate correction signals for the tip-tilt and fast-focus secondary mirror. Preliminary testing of the current version of the gimbal assembly has revealed positive result when operated at room temperature, but demonstrated hysterisis problems at cryogenic temperatures. Described in this paper are the specifications, design and performance characteristics, and integration of the gimbal mechanism with the rest of the wavefront sensor system.
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