It is difficult to achieve sub-micron resolution in backward mode OA microscopy using conventional piezoelectric detectors, because of wavefront distortions caused by components placed in the optical path, between the sample and the objective lens, that are required to separate the acoustic wave from the optical beam. As an alternate approach, an optoacoustic microscope (OAM) was constructed using the probe beam deflection technique (PBDT) to detect laserinduced acoustic signals. The all-optical OAM detects laser-generated pressure waves using a probe beam passing through a coupling medium, such as water, filling the space between the microscope objective lens and sample. The acoustic waves generated in the sample propagate through the coupling medium, causing transient changes in the refractive index that deflect the probe beam. These deflections are measured with a high-speed, balanced photodiode position detector. The deflection amplitude is directly proportional to the magnitude of the acoustic pressure wave, and provides the data required for image reconstruction. The sensitivity of the PBDT detector expressed as noise equivalent pressure was 12 Pa, comparable to that of existing high-performance ultrasound detectors. Because of the unimpeded working distance, a high numerical aperture objective lens, i.e. NA = 1, was employed in the OAM to achieve near diffraction-limited lateral resolution of 0.5 μm at 532nm. The all-optical OAM provides several benefits over current piezoelectric detector-based systems, such as increased lateral and axial resolution, higher sensitivity, robustness, and potentially more compatibility with multimodal instruments.
Despite 30 years of research, the mechanism behind the induced breakdown of plasma membranes by electrical pulses, termed electroporation, remains unknown. Current theories treat the interaction between the electrical field and the membrane as an entirely electrical event pointing to multiple plausible mechanisms. By investigating the biophysical interaction between plasma membranes and nanosecond electrical pulses (nsEP), we may have identified a non-electric field driven mechanism, previously unstudied in nsEP, which could be responsible for nanoporation of plasma membranes. In this investigation, we use a non-contact optical technique, termed probe beam deflection technique (PBDT), to characterize acoustic shockwaves generated by nsEP traveling through tungsten wire electrodes. We conclude these acoustic shockwaves are the result of the nsEP exposure imparting electrohydraulic forces on the buffer solution. When these acoustic shockwaves occur in close proximity to lipid bilayer membranes, it is possible that they impart a sufficient amount of mechanical stress to cause poration of that membrane. This research establishes for the first time that nsEP discharged in an aqueous medium generate measureable pressure waves of a magnitude capable of mechanical deformation and possibly damage to plasma membranes. These findings provide a new insight into the longunanswered question of how electric fields cause the breakdown of plasma membranes.
Optoacoustic microscopy (OAM) is an emerging technology combining the beneficial features of optical contrast and ultrasound resolution, to form a hybrid imaging technique capable of multi-scale, high-contrast and high-resolution imaging through optically scattering biological tissues. In the past 15 years, two system modifications have been developed for optoacoustic / photoacoustic microscopy: acoustic-resolution AR-OAM and optical-resolution OR-OAM. Typically, acoustic resolution systems can image deeper tissues structures, however, with resolution at least an order of magnitude worse than the systems of optical-resolution. It would be attractive for variety of biomedical applications to attain high (submicron) resolution at a depth exceeding the present limit of the optical resolution optoacoustic microscopy. Here we introduce a novel, all-optical method for OAM, in which not only thermal energy deposition, but also optoacoustic signal detection is achieved optically. In our design the probe laser beam was used as an ultrawide-band ultrasonic transducer. In this method the acoustic pressure wave amplitude is proportional to the angle of deflection of the probing CW laser beam incident on a balanced dual photodiode. Such laser beam deflection (LBD) method overcomes the limitations of conventional piezoelectric ultrasound transducers and optical interferometers. LBD method allows one to use high numerical aperture objectives for better focusing, avoid distortions associated with the system elements that separate optical and acoustic paths, and provides better sensitivity than any optical interferometer. It also provides a non-contact method that is insensitive to optical and acoustic artifacts typical of backward mode of optoacoustic imaging. The LBD sensitivity depends on a large number of system parameters such as probe beam power, spot size, interaction length, optical refraction index of the coupling medium, laser wavelength, photodiode sensitivity, proximity to the optoacoustic source, and thus, can be optimized. The basic setup of OR-LBD-OAM shows high sensitivity competitive with commercial ultrasonic transducers. We report first images of biological cells and tissues obtained using this technique.
Several studies, over recent years, focus on the use of chitosan, a biocompatible macromolecule, to form gold
nanoparticles (GNPs). In this study, gold nanoparticles were synthesized using chitosan and Chloroauric acid, under
stirring which cause micro/nano-gels to form. Ultraviolet (UV) light is used to reduce solution into gold nanoparticles,
in which the resulting nanoparticles are biocompatible after this reduction. In effort to obtain nanoparticles of different
shape and size using the chitosan, different concentrations of monovalent salt, were added to the chitosan solution. The
different signatures of the particles based on the concentration of the salt in the solution are observed using an optoacoustic
setup to detect morphological changes in the particles due to shifts in the absorption resonance. The optoacoustic
measurements are compared to the absorption spectra of the gold nanoparticles. The overall goal of this study
is to investigate the influence of chitosan, with the addition of the monovalent salt, on the formation
of the biocompatible gold nanoparticles. This characterization will aid in the preparation of measurements to take on
these particles in other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum such as radio frequencies.
Oxidative stress (OS) is increasingly implicated as an underlying pathogenic mechanism in a wide range of diseases, resulting from an imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the system's ability to detoxify the reactive intermediates or repair the resulting damage. ROS can be difficult to detect directly; however, they can be detected indirectly from the effects on oxidative stress biomarkers (OSB), such as glutathione (GSH), 3-nitrotyrosine, homocysteine, and cysteine. Moreover the reaction of transition metals with thiol-containing amino acids (for example GSH) oxidized by ROS can yield reactive products that accumulate with time and contribute to aging and diseases. The study of the interaction between OSB using functionalized nanoparticles (fNPs) has attracted interest because of potential applications in bio-sensors and biomedical diagnostics. A goal of the present work is to use fNPs to detect and ultimately quantitate OS in retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells subjected to external stressors, e.g. nonionizing (light) and ionizing (gamma) radiation. Specifically, we are investigating the assembly of gold fNPs mediated by the oxidation of GSH in irradiated RPE cells. The dynamic interparticle interactions had been characterized in previously reported work by monitoring the evolution of the surface plasmon resonance band using spectroscopic analysis (UV-VIS absorption). Here we are comparing the dynamic evolution of fNP assembly using photoacoustic spectroscopy (PAS). We expect that PAS will provide a more sensitive measure allowing these fNP sensors to measure OS in cell-based models without the artifacts limiting the use of current methods, such as fluorescent indicators.
We developed an optoacoustic biosensor intended for the detection of bloodborne microorganisms using
immunoaffinity reactions of antibody-coupled gold nanorods as contrast agents specifically targeted to the antigen
of interest. Optoacoustic responses generated by the samples are detected using a wide band ultrasonic transducer.
The sensitivity of the technique has been assessed by determining minimally detectable optical density which
corresponds to the minimum detectable concentration of the target viral surface antigens. Both ionic solutions and
gold nanorods served as the contrast agent generating the optoacoustic response. The sensitivity of Nano-LISA is at
least OD=10-6 which allows reliable detection of 1 pg/ml (depending on the commercial antibodies that are used).
Adequate detection sensitivity, as well as lack of non-specific cross-reaction between antigens favors NanoLISA as
a viable technology for biosensor development.
One of the leading causes of medical malpractice claims in emergency medicine is the misdiagnosis of the presence of
foreign bodies. Radiolucent foreign bodies are especially difficult to differentiate from surrounding soft tissue, gas, and
bone using existing clinical imaging modalities. Because many radiolucent foreign bodies have sufficient contrast for
imaging in the optical domain, we are exploring the use of
laser-induced optoacoustic imaging for the detection of
foreign bodies, especially in orbital and craniofacial injuries, in which the foreign bodies are likely to lie within the
penetration depth of visible and near infrared wavelengths. In order to evaluate the performance of optoacoustic
imaging for clinical detection and characterization, common foreign bodies have been scanned over a range of visible
and near infrared wavelengths to obtain the spectroscopic properties of the materials commonly associated with these
foreign bodies. The foreign bodies are also being embedded in realistic ex vivo tissue phantoms to evaluate the changes
that may occur in the spectroscopic absorption of the materials due to the interaction with tissue absorbers. Ultimately,
we anticipate that spectroscopic characterization will help identify specific wavelengths to be used for imaging foreign
bodies that will provide useful diagnostic data about the material properties of the object, thereby enabling the
characterization, as well as the location, of the objects. This information will aid the clinician in choosing the optimal
treatment course for the patient.
We previously reported the detection of bacterial antigen with immunoaffinity reactions using laser
optoacoustic spectroscopy and antibody-coupled gold nanorods (Ab-NR) as a contrast agent specifically
targeted to the antigen of interest. The Nano-LISA (Nanoparticle Linked Immunosorbent Assay) method
has been adapted to detect three very common blood-borne viral infectious agents, i.e. human T-lymphotropic
virus (HTLV), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis-B (Hep-B). These agents
were used in a model test panel to illustrate the performance of the Nano-LISA technique. A working
laboratory prototype of a Nano-LISA microplate reader-sensor was assembled and tested against the panel
containing specific antigens of each of the infectious viral agents. Optoacoustic (OA) responses generated
by the samples were detected using the probe beam deflection technique, an all-optical, non-contact
technique. A LabView graphical user interface was developed for control of the instrument and real-time
display of the test results. The detection limit of Nano-LISA is at least 1 ng/ml of viral antigen, and can
reach 10 pg/ml, depending on the binding affinity of the specific detection antibody used to synthesize the
Ab-NR. The method has sufficient specificity, i.e. the detection reagents do not cross-react with noncomplementary
antigens. Thus, the OA microplate reader, incorporating NanoLISA, has adequate
detection sensitivity and specificity for use in clinical in vitro diagnostic testing.
One of the leading causes of medical malpractice claims in emergency medicine is the misdiagnosis of the presence of
foreign bodies. Radiolucent foreign bodies are especially difficult to differentiate from surrounding soft tissue, gas, and
bone. Current imaging modalities employed for the detection of foreign bodies include: X-ray computed tomography,
magnetic resonance, and ultrasound; however, there is no consensus as to which modality is optimal for diagnosis.
Because many radiolucent foreign bodies have sufficient contrast for imaging in the optical domain, we are exploring the
use of laser-induced optoacoustic imaging for the detection of foreign bodies, especially in craniofacial injuries, in which
the foreign bodies are likely to lie within the penetration depth of visible and near infrared wavelengths. Tissue-simulating
phantoms containing various common foreign bodies have been constructed. Images of these phantoms have
been successfully generated using two laser-based optoacoustic imaging methods with different detection modalities. In
order to enhance the image contrast, common foreign bodies are being scanned over a wide range of wavelengths to obtain the spectroscopic properties of the materials commonly associated with these foreign bodies. This spectroscopic
characterization will help select specific wavelengths to be used for imaging specific objects and provide useful diagnostic data about the material properties of the object.
We demonstrated the ability to detect surface antigens, associated with pathogens, utilizing laser optoacoustic
spectroscopy with antibody-coupled gold nanorods (GNR) as a contrast agent specifically targeted to the antigen of
interest. The sensitivity of the technique has been assessed by determining the minimum detectable concentration of a
surface antigen from biological samples. We compared the sensitivity and applicability of two different methods for
detecting optoacoustic responses, using either optical or piezoelectric sensors. Biological samples were adsorbed to the
inside walls of detachable, flat-bottomed plastic micro-wells, and then probed with appropriate antibodies conjugated
with gold nanorods. If the target antigens were present, the antibody-nanoparticle conjugates were bound, while any
nonadsorbed nanoparticles were washed out of the wells. Optoacoustic signals were generated from the bound nanorods
using a pulsed pump laser at wavelengths corresponding to one of the peak absorptions of the nanorods. Optoacoustic
responses were obtained from the samples using both detection modalities. The sensitivity, suitability, ease of use of
each method were assessed and compared. Initial results indicate that optical detection gives comparable sensitivity as
the piezoelectric method, and further enhancement of the detection sensitivity is possible for both methods. An
advantage of the piezoelectric detection method is that it may be implemented in a more compact assembly, compared to
the optical method, however, the optical method may be less sensitive to external electromagnetic and acoustic noise.
Further evaluation will be required to refine these measurements. The results with both methods indicate that the use of
antibody-targeted nanorod contrast agents, with laser-optoacoustic detection, is a promising technology for the
development of rapid in vitro diagnostic tests.
We are detecting antigens (Ag), isolated from infectious organisms, utilizing laser optoacoustic spectroscopy and
antibody-coupled gold nanorod (NR) contrast agents specifically targeted to the antigen of interest. We have detected, in
clinical ocular samples, both Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2) . A monoclonal antibody (Ab)
specific to both HSV-1 and HSV-2 was conjugated to gold nanorods to produce a targeted contrast agent with a strong
optoacoustic signal. Elutions obtained from patient corneal swabs were adsorbed in standard plastic micro-wells. An
immunoaffinity reaction was then performed with the functionalized gold nanorods, and the results were probed with an
OPO laser, emitting wavelengths at the peak absorptions of the nanorods. Positive optoacoustic responses were obtained
from samples containing authentic (microbiologically confirmed) HSV-1 and HSV-2. To obtain an estimate of the
sensitivity of the technique, serial dilutions from 1 mg/ml to 1 pg/ml of a C. trachomatis surface Ag were prepared, and
were probed with a monoclonal Ab, specific to the C. trachomatis surface Ag, conjugated to gold nanorods. An
optoacoustic response was obtained, proportional to the concentration of antigen, and with a limit of detection of about 5
pg/ml. The optoacoustic signals generated from micro-wells containing albumin or saline were similar to those from
blank wells. The potential benefit of this method is identify viral agents more rapidly than with existing techniques. In
addition, the sensitivity of the assay is comparable or superior to existing colorimetric- or fluorometric-linked
immunoaffinity assays.
Detection of non-radio-opaque foreign bodies can be difficult. Current imaging modalities employed for detection of
foreign bodies include: X-ray computed tomography, magnetic resonance, and ultrasound. Successful diagnosis of the
presence of foreign bodies is variable because of the difficulty of differentiating them from soft tissue, gas, and bone.
We are applying laser-induced optoacoustic imaging to the detection of foreign bodies. Tissue-simulating phantoms
containing various common foreign bodies have been constructed. Images of these phantoms were generated by two
laser-based optoacoustic methods utilizing different detection modalities. A pre-commercial imager developed by Seno
Medical Instruments (San Antonio), incorporated an ultrasound transducer to detect induced optoacoustic responses,
while a laboratory-built imaging system utilized an optical probe beam deflection technique (PBDT) to detect the
optoacoustic responses. The laboratory-built unit also included an optical parametric oscillator as the pump, providing
tunable wavelength output to optimize the optoacoustic measurements by probing the foreign bodies at their maximum
optical absorption. Results to date have been encouraging; both methodologies have allowed us to reconstruct
successfully the image of foreign-body containing phantoms. In preliminary work the PBDT approach appeared to
produce higher resolution than did the ultrasound detector, possibly because PBDT is not constrained by the lower
bandwidth limit imposed on the ultrasound transducer necessary to increase imaging depth. During the research in
progress, we will compare the optoacoustic images to those generated by MRI, CT, and ultrasound, and continue to
improve the resolution of the technique by using multiple detection sensors, and to improve image contrast by scanning
foreign bodies over a range of wavelengths.
Bacterial contamination can be detected using a minimally invasive optical method, based on laser-induced
optoacoustic spectroscopy, to probe for specific antigens associated with a specific infectious agent. As a model
system, we have used a surface antigen (Ag), isolated from Chlamydia trachomatis, and a complementary antibody
(Ab). A preparation of 0.2 mg/ml of monoclonal Ab specific to the C. trachomatis surface Ag was conjugated to
gold nanorods using standard commercial reagents, in order to produce a targeted contrast agent with a strong
optoacoustic signal. The C. trachomatis Ag was absorbed in standard plastic microwells, and the binding of the
complementary Ab-nanorod conjugate was tested in an immunoaffinity assay. Optoacoustic signals were elicited
from the bound nanorods, using an optical parametric oscillator (OPO) laser system as the optical pump. The
wavelength tuneability of the OPO optimized the spectroscopic measurement by exciting the nanorods at their
optical absorption maxima. Optoacoustic responses were measured in the microwells using a probe beam deflection
technique. Immunoaffinity assays were performed on several dilutions of purified C. trachomatis antigen ranging
from 50 μg/ml to 1 pg/ml, in order to determine the detection limit for the optoacoustic-based assay. Only when the
antigen was present, and the complementary Ab-NR reagent was introduced into the microwell, was an enhanced
optoacoustic signal obtained, which indicated specific binding of the Ab-NR complex. The limit of detection with
the current system design is between 1 and 5 pg/ml of bacterial Ag.
This research reports progress in our earlier investigation of detecting specific drug diffusion into eye tissue
using photoacoustic spectroscopy (PAS). A key improvement to the technique is using short pulse tunable
laser source to stimulate the photoacoustic effect in tissue. An optical parametric oscillator (OPO) laser
system was used as a pumping source to generate ultrasonic photoacoustic signals and employed to scan
through different wavelengths with 0.1nm wavelength resolution to determine spectra of different drug
solutions in an ocular phantom. The short pulse duration (5-10ns) of the OPO laser has significantly
increased the photoacoustic efficiency conversion, and the ability to tune its output from 210nm to1800nm
has provided a wide selection range that is useful for optimizing spectroscopic studies. PAS spectra of
different solutions of molecules, such as Trypan Blue, Rose Bengal, Indocyanine Green (ICG), and
Amphotericin B (AB), at concentrations as low as 1 &mgr;g/ml, were constructed and compared to their actual
optical absorption spectra. Ultrasonic hydrophone and photothermal deflection technique (PhDT), a noncontact
optical method, were both used to record the photoacoustic signals, and compared in terms of sensitivity and applicability to record signals from the ocular tissue-bearing phantom. The results show good agreement between the optical and photoacoustic spectra, which supports moving to an in vivo application of recording the PAS responses from the eye. Future work will be directed at adapting this method for in vivo measurements, as well as improve the data acquisition system for faster PAS signal analysis.
We are developing a non- or minimally-invasive method for detecting and measuring specific drugs and biomolecules in vivo using photoacoustic spectroscopy (PAS). This pilot study investigated the feasibility of detecting the concentration of certain drugs in the vitreous or aqueous of the eye. As a prototype for using PAS for molecular detection in vivo, the technique was applied to the detection in a surrogate eye, of drugs with known optical spectrum such as Trypan Blue, Rose Bengal, and Amphotericin B (AB), at concentrations as low as 1 μg/ml. Chopped CW, or short pulse, Q-switch lasers, were used as pumping sources to generate ultrasonic photoacoustic signals in an ocular phantom containing the drug solutions. In addition to an ultrasonic hydrophone, the photothermal deflection technique (PhDT), a non-contact optical method with high sensitivity and fast response, were used to record the photoacoustic signals. The data from both detectors were compared over a range of drug concentrations. The photoacoustic signal generated from the retina was used as a reference, to measure the attenuation of light through drug solutions of different concentrations in the ocular phantom. The results indicated that photoacoustic spectroscopy is feasible in ocular phantoms incorporating ex vivo ocular tissue. The signals recorded using PAS were to be found to be linearly dependent on drug concentration, as predicted by theory. The photoacoustic method was found to be sensitive to drug concentrations as low as 1 μg/ml, a clinically relevant concentration for many drugs. Future work will be directed at adapting this method for in vivo measurement, and enhancing its sensitivity by using a tunable laser as the pump source.
The cells of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) are subject to photo-oxidative stress arising from the interaction of incident light with lipofuscin, melanin, and other pigment granules in the RPE cytoplasm. Specific genotypic responses to these stressors are controlled by transcription factors, such as NF-κB (RelA/p50 dimer). The effects of CW laser exposures on NF-κB nuclear translocation have been studied in a line of human-derived RPE cells (hTERT-RPE) that develop melanin pigmentation in culture. The cells were exposed to the CW emission of an Argon-ion laser for 10 m at 0.5 W/cm2, a range previously shown to produce oxidation of cellular proteins, DNA, and antioxidants. NF-κB dimer was measured in nuclear extracts by an electrophoretic mobility shift assay. NF-κB nuclear translocation exhibited a modest, early peak at 1 h, and a larger, late peak at 24 h. NF-κB activation could be reduced only by some antioxidants; for example, 20 mM N-acetyl-L-cysteine or 100 μM pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate were ineffective, while 500 μM ascorbic acid was highly effective. These results indicate that interaction of the laser with the RPE melanin granules is a likely source of oxidative reactions, and that the induction of photoxidative stress activates NF-κB, but it remains to be determined if NF-κB is pro- or anti-apoptotic in the RPE cell.
Laser-induced heating in an ocular phantom is measured with magnetic resonance thermography (MRT) using temperature-dependent phase changes in proton resonance frequency. The ocular phantom contains a layer of melanosomes isolated from bovine retinal pigment epithelium. The phantom is heated by the 806-nm output of a continuous wave diode laser with an irradiance of 2.4 to 21.6 W/cm2 in a beam radius of 0.8 or 2.4 mm, depending on the experiment. MRT is performed with a 2T magnet, and a two-turn, 6-cm-diam, circular radio frequency coil. Two-dimensional temperature gradients are measured within the plane of the melanin layer, as well as normal to it, with a temperature resolution of 1°C or better. The temperature gradients extending within the melanin layer are broader than those orthogonal to the layer, consistent with the higher optical absorption and consequent heating in the melanin. The temperature gradients in the phantom measured by MRT closely approximate the predictions of a classical heat diffusion model. Three-dimensional temperature maps with a spatial resolution of 0.25 mm in all directions are also made. Although the temporal resolution is limited in the prototype system (22.9 s for a single image "slice"), improvements in future implementations are likely. These results indicate that MRT has sufficient spatial and temperature resolution to monitor target tissue temperature during transpupillary thermotherapy in the human eye.
The possibility to induce selective hyperthermia in a target tissue or organ is of great interest for the treatment of cancer and other diseases. An emerging application of thermotherapy is for choroidal neovascularization, a complication of age-related macular degeneration. The therapy is currently limited because the temperature required for optimal tissue response is unknown. We report here an investigation of near infrared laser-induced heating in an ocular phantom. Magnetic resonance thermography (MRT) was used as a non-invasive method to determine the temperature distribution inside the phantom during exposure to a continuous wave diode laser at 806 nm wavelength with 1 watt maximum output. The laser beam had a quasi-gaussian profile, with a radius of 0.8-2.4 mm at target. High quality temperature images were obtained from temperature-dependent phase shifts in the proton resonance frequency with a resolution of 1deg C or better, using a 2T magnet. A phantom with a layer of bovine RPE melanin of 1.5 mm thickness was used to determine the spatial resolution of the MRT measurements. Three dimensional temperature maps were also constructed showing a spatial resolution of 0.25 mm in all direction. The heat distribution depended on the laser parameters, as well as the orientation of the melanin layer with respect to the incident laser beam. The temperature profiles determined by MRT closely followed predictions of a heat diffusion model, based on the optical properties of infrared light in melanin. These results support the use of MRT to optimize laser-induced hyperthermia in a small organ such as the eye.
We report studies of material processing using the VUV F2 laser which, by virtue of its low threshold, high resolution 'machining' capability, may bring advantage to laser-based optoelectronic and photonic device fabrication. For example, probe beam deflection and etch rate studies of polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) show this has a low ablation threshold, FT=20mJcm-2, and a large effective absorption coefficient, 1.6 x 105 cm-1, at 157nm, permitting high-resolution etching at modest fluence. The smooth ablated surfaces and low degree of thermal damage obtained with this laser make it well suited to machining structures such as relief gratings in PMMA. We also describe new results on producing fiber Bragg gratings with the 157nm laser. It is shown that these gratings can be written in a non-sensitized single mode fiber (Corning HI 980) with a low fluence and low total dose.
The 157nm F2 laser wavelength is strongly absorbed by glasses, even those with high silica content, making it potentially well suited for machining these materials by ablation. This is of interest for fabricating micro-optics and micro-devices in glass, provided crack-free surfaces with minimal laser-induced stress and surface roughness can be produced. Experimental studies are reported on the ablation threshold, ablation rate and surface quality of N-BK7 and soda lime glass for exposure with the VUV F2 laser. Optical probe techniques and etching are employed to determine the ablation threshold and removal rate and scanning electron microscopy to assess the surface quality of the glass following laser exposure. The interaction is discussed within the framework of a thermal vaporization model and the surface thermal loading is used to make a preliminary assessment of resolution attainable in micro-feature definition.
Theoretical and experimental studies of the surface quality in 157 nm F2 laser-ablated glasses are reported. Limitations set by statistical fluctuations in the multi- mode beam and by stationary beam non-uniformity are explored together with materials issues such as laser-induced surface cracking. Experimental work on ablating polymethyl methacrylate, used as a low threshold medium for recording of the VUV beam, and soda lime glass are described. Use is made of the probe beam deflection technique to determine ablation thresholds, and a variety of methods adopted for characterizing and assessing the quality of ablated surfaces e.g. scanning-electron microscopy, mechanical and optical interference profiling and atomic force microscopy. Preliminary roughness measurements are compared with theoretical expectations and the implication for glass micromachining with the F2 laser discussed.
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