KEYWORDS: Visualization, Virtual reality, 3D modeling, 3D image processing, 3D displays, 3D vision, Safety, Display technology, Displays, Computer simulations
Rapid advances in computer and display technologies have made it possible to present high quality virtual reality (VR)
environment. To use such virtual environments effectively, research should be performed into how users perceive and
react to virtual environment in view of particular human factors. We created a VR simulation of sea fish for science
education, and we conducted an experiment to examine how observers perceive the size and depth of an object within
their reach and evaluated their visual fatigue. We chose a multi-projection system for presenting the educational VR
simulation, because this system can provide actual-size objects and produce stereo images located close to the observer.
The results of the experiment show that estimation of size and depth was relatively accurate when subjects used physical
actions to assess them. Presenting images within the observer’s reach is suggested to be useful for education in VR
environment. Evaluation of visual fatigue shows that the level of symptoms from viewing stereo images with a large
disparity in VR environment was low in a short time.
Prolonged use of conventional stereo displays causes viewer discomfort and fatigue because of the vergenceaccommodation
conflict. We used a novel volumetric display to examine how viewing distance, the sign of the vergenceaccommodation
conflict, and the temporal properties of the conflict affect discomfort and fatigue. In the first experiment,
we presented a fixed conflict at short, medium, and long viewing distances. We compared subjects’ symptoms in that
condition and one in which there was no conflict. We observed more discomfort and fatigue with a given vergenceaccommodation conflict at the longer distances. The second experiment compared symptoms when the conflict had one sign compared to when it had the opposite sign at short, medium, and long distances. We observed greater symptoms with uncrossed disparities at long distances and with crossed disparities at short distances. The third experiment compared symptoms when the conflict changed rapidly as opposed to slowly. We observed more serious symptoms when the conflict changed rapidly. These findings help define comfortable viewing conditions for stereo displays.
As 3D technology spreads, 3D imagery is being viewed in more diverse situations. Already, televisions and mobile devices are able to present 3D images, in addition to the cinema. Of these, mobile devices have the unique characteristic of requiring users to view images at close range. The authors conduct an experiment to examine the relationship between visual comfort and an individual observer's near phoria and interpupillary distance. The results show that observers with a higher degree of exophoria tend to prefer stereo images behind the screen because they cause less visual fatigue. On the other hand, observers with little exophoria or esophoria tend to prefer stereo images in front of the screen. Further, the results also show that observers with a greater interpupillary distance tend to prefer stereo images behind the screen. These findings suggest that the ability to adjust the depth of stereo images in advance based on personal phoria or interpupillary distance might help users achieve comfortable stereo viewing on mobile devices.
Prolonged use of conventional stereo displays causes viewer discomfort and fatigue because of the vergenceaccommodation
conflict. We used a novel volumetric display to examine how viewing distance and the sign of the
vergence-accommodation conflict affect discomfort and fatigue. In the first experiment, we presented a fixed conflict at
short, medium, and long viewing distances. We compared subjects' symptoms in that condition and one in which there
was no conflict. We observed more discomfort and fatigue with a given vergence-accommodation conflict at the longer
distances. The second experiment compared symptoms when the conflict had one sign compared to when it had the
opposite sign at short, medium, and long distances. We observed greater symptoms with uncrossed disparities at long
distances and with crossed disparities at short distances. These findings help define comfortable viewing conditions for
stereo displays.
Stereoscopic filming is roughly divided into two types: toed-in and parallel camera configurations. Both types have
disadvantages: toed-in cameras cause keystone distortions, and parallel cameras cause image loss by shifting. In addition,
it is difficult for inexperienced creators to understand the optimal camera settings and post-processing procedures, such
as cross points and inter-camera distance, in both types. These factors hinder the creation of stereoscopic images.
Therefore, the authors focused on improving usability in stereoscopic filming, constructed an experimental camera
system, and examined semi-automatic camera configuration function in terms of viewing safety.
KEYWORDS: 3D displays, 3D image processing, Mobile devices, Image quality, Visualization, 3D vision, Glasses, Large screens, Small screens, 3D visualizations
High-quality stereoscopic image content must be viewable in a variety of visual environments, from 3-D theaters to 3-D
mobile devices. Stereoscopic effects, however, are affected by screen size, viewing distance, and other parameters. In
this study, the authors focus on the stereoscopic image quality experience of viewing 3-D content on a mobile device in
order to compare it with that of viewing 3-D content on a large screen. The stereoscopic image quality experience was
evaluated using Interpretation Based Quality (IBQ) methodology, which combines existing approaches to image quality
evaluation, such as the paired comparison and interview, and assesses the viewer experience using both quantitative and
qualitative data. Five stereoscopic images were used in the experiment. The results of the experiment suggest that the
discomfort felt while viewing stereoscopic images on a 3-D mobile device arise from not only visual fatigue but also the
effects of the smaller screen size. The study also revealed the types of stereoscopic images that are suitable for viewing
on 3-D mobile devices.
KEYWORDS: 3D image processing, 3D displays, Visualization, Safety, Prototyping, Image analysis, 3D imaging standards, Software development, Standards development, Algorithm development
Digital 3D cinema has recently become popular and a number of high-quality 3D films have been produced. However, in
contrast with advances in 3D display technology, it has been pointed out that there is a lack of suitable 3D content and
content creators. Since 3D display methods and viewing environments vary widely, there is expectation that high-quality
content will be multi-purposed. On the other hand, there is increasing interest in the bio-medical effects of image content
of various types and there are moves toward international standardization, so 3D content production needs to take into
consideration safety and conformity with international guidelines. The aim of the authors' research is to contribute to the
production and application of 3D content that is safe and comfortable to watch by developing a scalable 3D conversion technology. In this paper, the authors focus on the process of changing the screen size, examining a conversion algorithm and its effectiveness. The authors evaluated the visual load imposed during the viewing of various 3D content converted by the prototype algorithm as compared with ideal conditions and with content expanded without conversion. Sheffe's paired comparison method was used for evaluation. To examine the effects of screen size reduction on viewers, changes in user impression and experience were elucidated using the IBQ methodology. The results of the evaluation are presented along with a discussion of the effectiveness and potential of the developed scalable 3D conversion algorithm
and future research tasks.
This paper describes the trial development of an ergonomic evaluation system for stereoscopic video production. The purpose of the system is to quantify the parallax distribution of stereoscopic images and evaluate their viewing safety and comfort. The authors processed the images to extract the optical flow between the right and left images. The reference values for safety and comfort were obtained from two subjective evaluation and precedent studies. This paper reports the results of the experiments and the development of a prototype evaluation system.
Introduction: An increasing number of surgical procedures are performed in a microsurgical and minimally-invasive fashion. However, the performance of surgery, its possibilities and limitations become difficult to teach. Stereoscopic video has evolved from a complex production process and expensive hardware towards rapid editing of video streams with standard and HDTV resolution which can be displayed on portable equipment. This study evaluates the usefulness of stereoscopic video in teaching undergraduate medical students.
Material and methods: From an earlier study we chose two clips each of three different microsurgical operations (tympanoplasty type III of the ear, endonasal operation of the paranasal sinuses and laser chordectomy for carcinoma of the larynx). This material was added by 23 clips of a cochlear implantation, which was specifically edited for a portable computer with an autostereoscopic display (PC-RD1-3D, SHARP Corp., Japan). The recording and synchronization of left and right image was performed at the University Hospital Aachen. The footage was edited stereoscopically at the Waseda University by means of our original software for non-linear editing of stereoscopic 3-D movies. Then the material was converted into the streaming 3-D video format. The purpose of the conversion was to present the video clips by a file type that does not depend on a television signal such as PAL or NTSC.
25 4th year medical students who participated in the general ENT course at Aachen University Hospital were asked to estimate depth clues within the six video clips plus cochlear implantation clips. Another 25 4th year students who were shown the material monoscopically on a conventional laptop served as control.
Results: All participants noted that the additional depth information helped with understanding the relation of anatomical structures, even though none had hands-on experience with Ear, Nose and Throat operations before or during the course. The monoscopic group generally estimated resection depth to much lesser values than in reality. Although this was the case with some participants in the stereoscopic group, too, the estimation of depth features reflected the enhanced depth impression provided by stereoscopy.
Conclusion: Following first implementation of stereoscopic video teaching, medical students who are inexperienced with ENT surgical procedures are able to reproduce depth information and therefore anatomically complex structures to a greater extent following stereoscopic video teaching. Besides extending video teaching to junior doctors, the next evaluation step will address its effect on the learning curve during the surgical training program.
KEYWORDS: 3D displays, Visualization, 3D image processing, Refraction, 3D vision, Eye, Stereoscopic displays, 3D acquisition, Optical calibration, LCDs
A common cause of asthenopia is viewing objects from a short distance, as is the case when working at a VDT (Visual Display Terminal). In general, recovery from asthenopia, especially accommodative asthenopia, is aided by looking into the distance. The authors have developed a stereoscopic 3-D display with dynamic optical correction that may reduce asthenopia. The display does this by reducing the discrepancy between accommodation and convergence, thereby presenting images as if they were actually in the distance. The results of visual acuity tests given before and after presenting stereoscopic 3-D images with this display show a tendency towards less asthenopia. In this study, the authors developed a refraction feedback function that makes the viewer's distance vision more effective when viewing stereoscopic 3-D images on the this display. Using this function, refraction is fed back during viewing and the viewer gradually acquires distance vision. The results of the study suggest that stereoscopic 3-D images are more effective than 2-D images for recovery from asthenopia.
KEYWORDS: 3D displays, Visualization, 3D image processing, Eye, Optical calibration, Stereoscopic displays, 3D vision, Refraction, LCDs, 3D acquisition
The purpose of this study was to consider a practical application of a newly developed stereoscopic 3-D display that solves the problem of discrepancy between accommodation and convergence. The display uses dynamic optical correction to reduce the discrepancy, and can present images as if they are actually remote objects. The authors thought the display may assist in recovery from asthenopia, which is often caused when the eyes focus on a nearby object for a long time, such as in VDT (Visual Display Terminal) work. In general, recovery from asthenopia, and especially accommodative asthenopia, is achieved by focusing on distant objects. In order to verify this hypothesis, the authors performed visual acuity tests using Landolt rings before and after presenting stereoscopic 3-D images, and evaluated the degree of recovery from asthenopia. The experiment led to three main conclusions: (1) Visual acuity rose after viewing stereoscopic 3-D images on the developed display. (2) Recovery from asthenopia was particularly effective for the dominant eye in comparison with the other eye. (3) Interviews with the subjects indicated that the Landolt rings were particularly clear after viewing the stereoscopic 3-D images.
Pachinko is a pinball-like game peculiar to Japan, and is one of the most common pastimes around the country. Recently, with the videogame market contracting, various multimedia technologies have been introduced into Pachinko machines. The authors have developed a Pachinko machine incorporating an autostereoscopic 3D display, and evaluated its effect on the visual function. As of April 2003, the new Pachinko machine has been on sale in Japan. The stereoscopic 3D image is displayed using an LCD. Backlighting for the right and left images is separate, and passes through a polarizing filter before reaching the LCD, which is sandwiched with a micro polarizer. The content selected for display was ukiyoe pictures (Japanese traditional woodblocks). The authors intended to reduce visual fatigue by presenting 3D images with depth "behind" the display and switching between 3D and 2D images. For evaluation of the Pachinko machine, a 2D version with identical content was also prepared, and the effects were examined and compared by testing psycho-physiological responses.
Stereoscopic video teaching can facilitate understanding for current minimally-invasive operative techniques. This project was created to set up a digital stereoscopic teaching environment for training of ENT residents and medical students. We recorded three ENT operative procedures (tympanoplasty, paranasal sinus operation and laser chordectomy) at the University Hospital Aachen. The material was edited stereoscopically at the Waseda University and converted into a streaming 3-D video format, which does not depend on PAL or NTSC signal standards. Video clips were evaluated by 5 ENT specialists and 11 residents in single sessions on an LCD monitor (8) and a CRT monitor (8). Emphasis was laid on depth perception, visual fatigue and time to achieve stereoscopic impression. Qualitative results were recorded on a visual analogue scale, ranging from 1 (excellent) to 5 (bad). The overall impression was rated 2,06 to 3,13 in the LCD group and 2,0 to 2,62 in the CRT group. The depth impression was rated 1,63 to 2,88 (LCD) and 1,63 to 2,25 (CRT). Stereoscopic video teaching was regarded as useful in ENT training by all participants. Further points for evaluation will be the quantification of depth information as well as the information gain in teaching junior colleagues.
This paper describes an examination of a stereoscopic 3-D display system using a correction lens. The purpose of the system is to reduce the accommodation and convergence difference during viewing stereoscopic 3-D images by using simple technique. This correction lens is a mono-focal lens, and added to the polarized filter glasses.
In this study, the authors carried out three experiments in order to examine the appropriate utilization conditions and effects of the correction lens. In experiment 1, the refractive power of correction lens was examined under six conditions in which distances of accommodation and convergence were theoretically equal. In experiment 2, the presenting condition of stereoscopic 3-D images suitable for the correction lens was examined by measurement of refractions during viewing visual target that moved in depth direction. In experiment 3, the effectiveness of the correction lens was examined by using the utilization conditions obtained in experiment 1 and 2.
From the results of the experiments, the following conclusions were drawn.
(1) Correction lenses shift the accommodation distance.
(2) Using a correction lens with the appropriate refractive power and setting the appropriate conditions for presenting stereoscopic 3-D images reduced the difference between accommodation and convergence.
(3) The use of a correction lens affected the subjective symptoms of asthenopia.
KEYWORDS: Software development, 3D displays, 3D image processing, Video, Distance measurement, Visualization, Stereoscopic displays, Video compression, Digital video recorders, Image fusion
This paper describes the development of software for non- linear editing of stereoscopic 3-D movies. The purpose of the software is to simplify the creation of stereoscopic 3-D movies as well as reduce production costs. The software has the following functions: 1) Separate a field-sequential movie file into right and left movie files. 2) Display right and left movie files on time base. 3) Adjust horizontal and vertical disparities. 4) Adjust image size and rotation. 5) Correct inverted fields. 6) Measure the theoretical distance of a presented image. 7) Adjust movies created using the parallel recording method. 8) Combine right and left movie files into a field-sequential 3-D movie file. This paper reports the results of the development of the software and discusses the usefulness of the software for editing stereoscopic 3-D movies.
We describe the development and evaluation of an electro- optical 3D adapter for recording stereoscopic 3D images with a standard video camcorder. The adapter uses a combination of liquid crystal shutters and a half prism to record right and left images in each field of an NTSC signal. The purpose of this study was to develop a simple and usable 3D recording system. We investigated the usability of a conventional -model 3D adapter and examined solutions to the problems we found. This adapter has the following characteristics: 1) The 3D recordings were made using the parallel method. 2) The frame of the adapter does not obstruct light in any part of the images. 3) A correcting lens is used in close-up recordings to equalize the sizes of the right and left images. 4) The vertical disparity of each image is easy to adjust. 5) The base length can be adjusted to between 65mm and 90mm.
KEYWORDS: 3D image processing, Cultural heritage, Virtual reality, 3D modeling, Cameras, Video, Stereoscopic displays, Inspection, Digital cameras, Stereoscopic cameras
This paper describes a production of stereoscopic 3D movies of a Spanish monastery for a digital archive. The authors have previously produced and presented an experimental virtual museum of Japanese Buddhist art in 1995. The purpose of this study was to produce a parallel with it, and to examine a simple method for the production.
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