Irradiation of cell-layers with focussed 2.8 μm ir-laser allows to control the cell temperature from room temperature up to 100°C. Temperatures were calculated for a cell culture model and verified experimentally by thermal mapping of the cell-surrounding medium by means of thermochromic liquid crystals (TLC). Irradiation power and time were varied and associated biological effects like necrosis and apoptosis were observed with respect to the irradiation dosis.
This work describes the time-resolved fluorescence characteristics
of two different photosensitizers in single cells, in detail
mTHPC and 5-ALA induced PPIX, which are currently clinically used
in photodynamic therapy. The fluorescence lifetime of the drugs was
determined in the cells from time-gated spectra as well as single photon
counting, using a picosecond pulsed diode laser for fluorescence
excitation. The diode laser, which emits pulses at 398 nm with 70 ps
full width at half maximum duration, was coupled to a confocal laser
scanning microscope. For time-resolved spectroscopy a setup consisting
of a Czerny Turner spectrometer and a MCP-gated and -intensified
CCD camera was used. Time-gated spectra within the cells were acquired
by placing the laser beam in ‘‘spot scan’’ mode. In addition, a
time-correlated single photon counting module was used to determine
the fluorescence lifetime from single spots and to record lifetime images.
The fluorescence lifetime of mTHPC decreased from 7.5 to 5.5
ns during incubation from 1 to 6 h. This decrease was probably attributed
to enhanced formation of aggregates during incubation. Fluorescence
lifetime imaging showed that longer lifetimes were correlated
with accumulation in the cytoplasm in the neighborhood of the cell
nucleus, whereas shorter lifetimes were found in the outer cytoplasm.
For cells that were incubated with 5-ALA, a fluorescence lifetime of
7.4 ns was found for PPIX; a shorter lifetime at 3.6 ns was probably
attributed to photoproducts and aggregates of PPIX. In contrast from
fluorescence intensity images alone, different fluorescence species
could not be distinguished. However, in the lifetime image a structured
fluorescence distribution in the cytoplasm was correlated with
the longer lifetime and probably coincides with mitochondria. In conclusion,
picosecond diode lasers coupled to a laser scanning microscope
equipped with appropriate detection units allows time-resolved
spectroscopy and lifetime imaging with high spatial resolution and
provides numerous possibilities in cellular and pharmaceutical research.
This article describes a setup for subcellular time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy and fluorescence lifetime measurements using a confocal laser scanning microscope in combination with a short pulsed diode laser for fluorescence excitation and specimen illumination. The diode laser emits pulses at 398 nm wavelength with 70 ps full width at half maximum (FWHM) duration. The diode laser can be run at a pulse repetition rate of 40 MHz down to single shot mode. For time resolved spectroscopy a spectrometer setup consisting of an Czerny Turner spectrometer and a MCP-gated and -intensified CCD camera was used. Subcellular fluorescence lifetime measurements were achieved using a time-correlated single photon counting (TCSPC) module instead of the spectrometer setup. The capability of the short pulsed diode laser for fluorescence imaging, fluorescence lifetime measurements and time-resolved spectroscopy in combination with laser scanning microscopy is demonstrated by fluorescence analysis of several photosensitizers on a single cell level.
Thermal stimulation of single cells and cell layers is used for investigations of temperature associated processes like necrosis or apoptosis. Simulations of temperature distributions in layered structures on various substrates are presented. In order to verify the simulations a diode pumped IR-cw laser system was developed. The TEM00 output beam at a wavelength of 2.8 micrometers was focused on biological material to compare visible effects with the calculations.
KEYWORDS: Optical coherence tomography, Sensors, Tomography, CCD cameras, Data acquisition, In vivo imaging, Head, Detector arrays, Detector development, Analog electronics
OCT with wide area detection has proven to be a good instrument to obtain tomographic images of epithelial structures. A depth of 2 mm was reached with a CCD-camera setup. Due to the lack of an effective image preprocessing the data acquisition time was too long to carry out measurements in vivo. A new detector head using line detector arrays was developed with the advantage of interference detection by complementary detectors and data reduction by analog computing.
The aim of this research is the investigation and improvement of the possibilities of optical coherence tomography (OCT) for evaluation and imaging of dermal lesions, such as melanoma. Single point detection, as done with fiber arrangements using photomultiplier for measurements on human eyes was not successful in reaching high resolutions in strongly scattering media as human skin. The maximum scanning depth was about 500 micrometers . For this reason, a new system with a wide area detection was developed. The experimental set-up consists of a highly sensitive slow-scan CCD-camera and a suitably adapted interferometric arrangement. Measurements were performed on a model made of scattering material with simple objects embedded. They show that images appear to be blurred as a consequence of the wide area detection which allows an increased measuring depth. These investigations lead to a new method for the improvement of the OCT images which is explained and demonstrated on measurements performed on the model. Measurements on preserved specimen of human skin up to a scanning depth of 2 mm are shown in comparison to corresponding histological slides to demonstrate the spatial resolution and the ability of optical coherence methods to distinguish structures with different optical parameters.
The better understanding of generation of by-products during laser application allows a rough risk assessment, which in turn results in a number of recommendations and guidelines. The main attention is directed to smoke evacuation systems in connection with sufficient room ventilation, both being obligatory for any invasive laser therapy. Minimal requirements and optimal use of such units are discussed and practical examples are presented. The important role of personal protection measures is pointed out. These measures are not new and more or less practiced in the past. However, they have been justified now in detail by the comprehensive investigations during the STILMED project.
Porcine liver was irradiated with a medical CO2-laser. The generated particles were sampled with glass fiber filters and a clean-up procedure specific for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) was carried out. Separation and detection was done by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. This clean-up procedure was controlled by fluorinated Internal Standards. Rather low amounts of PAH and their guide substance Benzo[a]pyrene were found. Compared to its threshold limit value no potential risk for the medical staff seems to be given.
KEYWORDS: Tissues, Lung, Chemical lasers, Aerosols, Particles, Laser tissue interaction, Animal model studies, Data modeling, Chemical analysis, Tumors
Laser-tissue interaction may generate by energy absorption a complex mixture of gaseous, volatile, semi-volatile and particular substances. At the time about 150 different components are known from IR-laser interaction with different organ tissues like liver, fat, muscle and skin. The laser-tissue interaction process thereby is dominated by heating processes, which is confirmed by the similarity of formed chemical products in comparison with conventional cooking processes for food preparation. With the identified chemical substances and relative amounts in backmind a walk along the think path of risk assessment with special reference to pyrolysis products is given. The main way of intake of pyrolysis products is the inhalative one, which results from the fine aerosols formed and the high spreading energy out of the irradiated source. The liberated amounts of irritative chemicals as (unsaturated) aldehydes, heterocycles of bad odor and possibly cancerogenic acting substances relates to some (mu) g/g of laser vaporized tissue. With regard to this exposure level in a hypothetic one cubic meter volume the occupational limit settings are far away. Even indoor air exposure levels are in nearly all cases underwent, for the content of bad smelling substances forces an effective ventilation. Up to now no laser typical chemical substance could be identified, which was not elsewhere known by frying or baking processes of meat, food or familiar. Starting with the GRAS concept of 1957 the process of risk assessment by modified food products and new ingredients is still improofing. The same process of risk assessment is governing the laser pyrolysis products of mammalian tissues. By use of sufficient suction around the laser tissue source the odor problems as well as the toxicological problems could be solved.
Different types of porcine tissue were irradiated with a surgical CO2 laser. The generated aerosols were sampled on glass fiber filters and incubated with human peripheral blood cells. Afterwards, these exposed cells were subjected to the comet assay. The single cell gel electrophoresis or comet assay represents a powerful technique for the detection of DNA strand breaks in eukaryotic cells. In short, the electrophoretic mobility of DNA fragments is proportional to the quantity of DNA damage caused by the genotoxic agent in question. By investigating porcine tissue laser pyrolysis products, it is demonstrated that the comet assay is an appropriate tool to assess the genotoxic capacity of even a heterogeneously composed class of substances with unknown modes of action and interaction.
We report on investigations of laser ablation of larger particles which may be in the minority but are known to be the main carrier of possibly infectious materia. We determined the dynamics of the ablated material by means of short-time exposure video recording with a Schlieren-Optik device. In addition, ablated particles were collected on microscopical slides and examined visually. The region of interest was imaged on a CCD-camera and transferred to a image processing system to get information about the size distribution and the morphology of the particulate matter. For the experiments we irradiated both soft and hard tissues and tissue modelling substances with pulsed and, for comparison, with continuous wave lasers. The particle velocities and the morphology of the ablated matter, either of irregular or special form, depend strongly on the laser type and laser parameters, respectively the treated material. In case of spherical aerosols we quantitatively determined the particle size distributions, for irregular shaped particles (mostly fibrous) only qualitative statements can be made.
Liver and muscle tissue have been irradiated with a surgical CO2-laser. The prefiltered fumes were adsorbed on different sorbents (activated charcoal type NIOSH and Carbotrap) and desorbed with different solvents (carbondisulphide and acetone). Analysis was done by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. An updated list of identified substances is shown. Typical Maillard reaction products as found in warmed over flavour as aldehydes, aromatics, heterocyclic and sulphur compounds were detected. Quantification of some toxicological relevant substances is presented. The amounts of these substances are given in relation to the laser parameters and different tissues for further toxicological assessment.
Laser plume and particulate debris distribution during laser ablation of tissue can vary strongly depending on laser type and laser parameters. Investigations were made by means of particle flow visualization and particle density monitoring for both cw- and pulsed lasers. It turns out that the dynamics of fine dust particles are quite different from those of larger particles consisting of aggregates of cell fragments or complete cells. Consequences for the design of plume suction units and other safety means are discussed.
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) and on-line fluorescence spectroscopy were carried out on human tumors after 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) administration using 633-nm light of a dye laser as therapeutic radiation and as fluorescence excitation radiation. This has the advantages of (1) enabling use of one laser for PDT and fluorescence diagnosis only, (2) enabling the possibility of on-line fluorescence measurements, and (3) exciting protoporphyrin molecules in deep tissue layers. Monte Carlo calculations were carried out to determine excitation and fluorescence photon distribution in case of red and violet excitation radiation. The results show the possibility of depth-resolved measurements on the fluorophore distribution by variation of excitation wavelength. The high penetration depth of 633-nm radiation results in a higher ratio of the 700-nm protoporphyrin fluorescence of the xenotransplanted tumor It to the skin Is compared with 407-nm excitation. No values greater than 1 for the ratio It/Is were found in the case of intravenous ALA injection even for red excitation. Therefore, a large amount of ALA will be metabolized in the skin and can cause photosensitivity of the patient when applied systematically. In contrast, protoporphyrin fluorescence limited to the pretreated skin area was detected in case of topically applied ALA to patients with mycosis funcoides and erythroplasy of Queyrat. The influence of remitted excitation light and of the spontaneous radiation from the laser as well as the possible excitation of food-based degradation products of chlorophyll has to be considered in high-sensitivity fluorescence measurements.
KEYWORDS: Luminescence, Skin, Photodynamic therapy, Monte Carlo methods, Photon transport, Tissues, Tumors, Fluorescence spectroscopy, Absorption, In vivo imaging
PDT and on-line fluorescence spectroscopy were carried out on human tumors after ALA- administration using 633 nm-light of a dye laser as therapeutic radiation and as fluorescence excitation radiation. This has the following advantages: (1) use of one laser for PDT and fluorescence diagnosis only, (2) the possibility of on-line fluorescence measurements, and (3) excitation of protoporphyrin molecules in deep tissue layers. Monte Carlo calculations were carried out to determine the excitation and fluorescence photon distribution in the case of red and violet excitation radiation. The results show the possibility of depth-resolved measurements on the fluorophore distribution by variation of the excitation wavelength. The influence of remitted excitation light and of the spontaneous radiation from the laser as well as the possible excitation of food-based degradation products of chlorophyll has to be considered in high-sensitive fluorescence measurements.
Various tissue samples have been irradiated with lasers generally used for surgical laser applications. Laser generated fumes were collected on charcoal tubes and chemical analysis of the pyrolytic products was performed by means of gaschromatographic and mass spectrometric (GC/MS) methods. First experimental results show clearly distinguishable features in the component spectra from various combinations of tissues and lasers or laser parameters, respectively. A method of standardization and calibration is presented and preliminary estimations of emission concentrations of particular substances are given.
Medical laser treatment enlarged its application in recent years in an explosive way. By a given distance to the patient the laser surgeon can cut, coagulate, or evaporate human tissue in a very distinct manner. Due to the mainly thermal interaction of the laser light with the irradiated tissue it may be heated up to pyrolysis conditions. By pyrolysis of human tissue degradation products are generated, which may be harmful. Chemical substances and particles formed of tissue could be toxic, cancerogenic or irritant to skin and airways or after uptake. Special hazards of human laser plume in the health care environment may result from infectious viruses, bacterias, parasites, spread tumor cells and DNA fragments.
The collecting efficiency of surgical smoke evacuators depends strongly on the design of the suction nozzle. In order to study the flow conditions at the nozzle entrance we developed methods to visualize the flow in the surrounding area. The experimental set-up for visualization and recording of the streamlines is described. Flow patterns recorded on a video recorder allow us to estimate the efficiency of a particular nozzle design under various experimental conditions. The turn-over from laminar flow to turbulent flow due to the laser generated fume can be studied in detail.
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