A stand-off Raman imaging system for the identification of explosive traces was modified for the analysis of substances in containers which are non-transparent to the human eye. This extends its application from trace detection of threat materials to the investigation of suspicious container content. Despite its limitation to containers that are opaque to the facilitated laser, the combination of Spatial Offset Raman Spectroscopy (SORS) with stand-off Raman imaging allows to collect spectral data from a broad range of different spatial offsets simultaneously. This is a significant advantage over SORS with predefined offset, since the ideal offset is unknown prior to the measurement and depends on the container material as well as the sample content. Here the detection of sodium chlorate in a white plastic bottle is shown. A 532nm-laser (pulse length 5ns, repetition 50kHz) was focused to a diameter of 10mm at 10m. A 1500mm Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope with a 152.4mm diameter collected the scattered light. An edge filter removed inelastically scattered laser light and a liquid crystal tunable filter was used to select 0.25nm broad wavelength ranges between 480 and 720nm. The sample area of 50×50mm was imaged on 1024×1024 pixels of an ICCD camera. For the conducted experiments an ICCD gate time of 5ns was selected and 70μJ-laser pulses were accumulated during 1s for each wavelength.
An electronic 3D-shape measurement method has been developed by combining light-in-flight recording by holography (lif) with digital holography. Lif is a technique for direct visualization of the propagation of a short light pulse when it is e.g. intersecting a 3D-shaped object resulting in contour lines of the object. This is achieved by letting the reference beam be delayed in comparison to the object beam along a CCD-sensor. A Fourier-Fresnel algorithm numerically reconstructs the hologram. A Littrow mounted reflection grating in a Twyman-Green type interferometer set-up creates the optical delay between the object and the reference beam. The 3D-shape and the position of the object can be determined by combining the contour lines of the object together to a depth map.
The recorded hologram from one point will be confined to a rectangular area on the CCD-sensor, where the delay between the reference and the object beam is within the pulse length of the laser. Due to diffraction limitation will the resolution be poor in the direction of the delay since the recorded rectangle area will have its shortest side there. The resolution can however be improved by making two recordings in two perpendicular directions. The two holographic images can then be combined keeping the best resolution of the two holograms. Increase of the resolution makes the lif method useful for more applications for shape and deformation measurements.
A method for measurement of continuous displacements and deformations is presented. The method may be used in e.g. speckle interferometry, moire, structured light and other optical measurement methods based on evaluation of phase changes. The initial random phase of the interference pattern is either known or evaluated before displacement take place using e.g. phase shifting. The changing phase thereafter is achieved only from one image at a time by a least square algorithm. The technique can be used for measuring shape deformations such as transients and other dynamic events, heat expansion as well as other phenomena where it is difficult to accomplish phase shifting during deformation.
We have developed a fiber-optic sensor for measuring dynamic surface displacements caused by shock waves. Light from a LED emitter is sent through a plastic fiber and reflected from the surface back into the fiber. The intensity of the reflected light gives the distance to the surface. Based on simple principles and utilizing inexpensive components, micrometer and microsecond resolution is achieved at lower cost and easier usage than for interferometric methods and with better reliability than an accelerometer. The sensor is comparatively easy to set up. It is battery operated for reduced sensitivity of electromagnetic interference. The design of the fiber probe facilitates access in narrow and hostile environments.
Methodologies to extract information from flash X-ray images produced using Computed Radiography (CR) are described. In this process, the exposed image plate is directly and accurately scanned by a laser beam into digital format. Compared with photographic X-ray recordings, better geometrical stability and higher contrast are achieved. This enables more elaborate image and signal processing techniques to be applied to the images, resulting in a higher capacity to extract information from the recordings. Here, the density and velocity profiles along non-particulated shaped charge jets from flash radiography imaging have been evaluated. The mass distribution was estimated using the Abel transform, where the contrast to density calibration was done directly from information extracted from the images. The velocity evaluation was performed in two steps. The sums of intensities along cross sections were evaluated using image processing. By assuming constant jet density and identifying corresponding parts of the curves, the velocity profile along the jet is evaluated.
In order to improve the image quality of flash X-ray images, a single step process "Computed Radiography" has been tested and evaluated. In this process, which has previously been used for medical imaging, the image intensifier screen is directly scanned by a laser beam into digital format, making the image directly accessible for computer evaluation. Results of the evaluation and descriptions on how the technique can be adapted for flash X-ray imaging are presented. The computed radiography technique has been tested in high speed and extreme dynamic applications with 150 kV and 450 kV Scandiflash flash X-ray tubes. Tests have been performed both for shadow and penetration imaging. The image plates showed to have higher dynamics, smaller grain size and being less sensitive to stray light and mechanical stress than common photographic film-screen system, resulting in an increase in resolution and decrease in noise.
Point clusters of measured shapes achieved with the digital light-in-flight recording by holography method, is combined with CAD - Computer Aided Design software to obtain convertible formats for design and simulation software. The point cloud is constructed to a b-spline surface by least square fitting. The b-spline surface is converted into IGES- format in order to be readable for CAD and other software. A simple deformation experiment is made which demonstrates the advantages of combining holographic measurements with FEA- analyzes in order to adjust the constraints, the boundary conditions and loads in the simulation model to better fit experimental results.
Basic principles for interferometry with ultrashort-pulse lasers are described. Different interferometer configurations for use as sensors for optical shape and deformation measurement are discussed. The sensor configurations that are mainly treated, are: the non-scanning white-light interferometer as distance and pulse length sensor. Speckle interferometry with ultrashort pulses for three-dimensional shape measurement. Light-in-flight recording by holography for visualization of light propagation and for three-dimensional shape measurement. Digital light-in-flight recording by holography. Holographic interferometry with ultrashort pulses.
An improved method for measurement of continuous displacement and deformations with digital speckle pattern interferometry is presented. The initial random phase of the speckle pattern is evaluated by having many phase-shifting steps before the deformation. By this way the accuracy of the initial phase estimation can be increased and the handling of the image noise is improved. This makes it also possible to use the phase stepped speckle patterns as references for comparison with the speckle patterns of the deformed object, thereby increasing the reliability and accuracy of the phase estimations of the deformed patterns. The technique can be used for measuring deformations such as transients and other dynamic events, heat expansion as well as other phenomena where it is difficult to accomplish phase shifting during deformation.
KEYWORDS: Holography, 3D acquisition, Holograms, Digital holography, 3D modeling, Visualization, 3D image processing, Charge-coupled devices, Holographic interferometry, Finite element methods
An electronic method is proposed that can simultaneously measure an objects shape and its displacements in the micrometer range as well as in the millimeter range. This opens up the possibility to easily integrate holographic deformation measurements with FEA-modeling. It also makes it possible to record a 3D-movie. The method is a combination of digital holography and light-in-flight recording by holography. A Twyman-Green type interferometer is used with the reference mirror replaced by a Littrow-mounted reflection grating. The grating creates an optical delay across the beam profile. The deformations are projected to the 3D-shape whose gradients are determined by Sobel- operators. Large rigid body displacements are calculated by crosscorrelation of shapes measured before and after displacement. A short theoretical description is followed by experimental results of this method.
The heat expansion of the solder joint on a PCB board has been investigated using speckle interferometry. Set-ups for measuring in-plane and out-of-plane displacements have been separately used. The component was stepwise heated by increasing the working current. During the heating the temperature was measured by a thermocouple. For each step, the heating was halted until thermal equilibrium occurred, then four phase-shifted interferograms were recorded for each temperature Tn. In this way the deformation between two temperatures Tn+1 and Tn were evaluated. The deformation was measured in different directions and the joint solder's strains were calculated.
KEYWORDS: Holography, 3D modeling, Digital holography, Visualization, 3D image processing, 3D metrology, Stereoscopic cameras, Finite element methods, Computer aided design, Image resolution
In the development of new products there are two parallel lines for the development process to follow; the traditional or 'real,' and the new computer aided or 'virtual.' The traditional line is to develop prototypes that can be used for testing strength, functionality, and visual appearance of the product. In the virtual line digital (CAD) models are developed which can be tested entirely in a computer by simulations e.g., using Finite Element Analysis (FEA) and other tools. For transformation from the real to the virtual world some kind of 3D camera is needed. The shape of the model should be measured together with further data concerning the visual appearance, material properties, etc. We have developed electronic recording techniques for doing this based on the Light-in-Flight technique. This technology has all advantages of holography, i.e., apart from the shape it is also possible to measure how much light is reflected from different parts of the object along with interferometric information, which can give mechanical data for the object. This can be used for example for visualization and to give tactile and haptic information to a virtual reality system about how the object would be perceived by a person touching it.
As a part of a project for using short laser pulses and holographic techniques to measure three-dimensional shapes, measurements have been carried out of the pulse shapes of laser pulses from a mode-locked argon-ion pumped dye laser with autocorrelator, light-in-flight recording by holography and nonscanning white-light interferometer. The aim of the study is to find a reliable, inexpensive and fast method for measuring the pulse length of laser pulses in the picosecond region, when exposing and reconstructing the light-in-flight hologram, in respect to pulse width, symmetry and signal-to- noise ratio. Experimental results, along with the theoretical background, from these tests are accounted for in this presentation.
A method is presented for simultaneous measurement of object shape and displacement by combining Light-in-Flight recording by holography with holographic interferometry. The technique makes it possible to use ultra-short pulses, picoseconds or shorter, to examine extremely rapid dynamic events. Theoretical and experimental results for fringe evaluation are presented. If a Light-in-Flight hologram is double exposed, and the object under study is displaced between the exposures, two images will overlap. If the deformations are in the order of micrometers, an ordinary interferogram is attained by letting an image processing system adding together the interference fringes seen for each contouring line, but with the additional advantage of information of the 3D shape. If the deformations are large compared to the wavelength and small compared to the coherencelength, the two images will partly overlap. The envelope of the intensity curve becomes broadened. This broadening is a measure of the displacement. If the deformations are large compared to both the wavelength and the coherencelength used, two separated contouring lines results, representing the two different object positions.
Light-in-Flight recording by holography makes it possible to perlorm accurate three-dimensional shape measurements by single-line contouring. Because ultrashort light pulses are used, both stationary and moving objects may be recorded, e.g., fast-rotating turbine blades, mobile scale models, active human beings, etc. The evaluation is accomplished by an image processing system that reads the contouring line that varies along the hologram and transforms it into spatial coordinates, thereby measuring the three-dimensional shape. There are a number of possible application areas of the method, ranging from practical engineering to medicine.
An easily implemented and easily manageable system for timeresolved holographic interferometry is presented. The system consists of a multiple-pulsed Q-switched ruby laser and a rotating disk having radial slits with a constant angular separation. The disk is used to scan the reference beam along a holographic plate, thereby achieving spatial multiplexing. Since the influence on the beam is negligible and a single slit is illuminated by every laser pulse, there is no need for synchronization. The interferometric pattern is achieved by removing the disk and exposing a reference image on the holographic plate. The system may serve as an excellent tool for full-field dynamic measurements. A simple experiment has been performed showing a sequence of momentary interference patterns on a vibrating plate.
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