Due to the space radiation environment at L2, ESA’s Euclid mission will be subject to a large amount of highly energetic particles over its lifetime. These particles can cause damage to the detectors by creating defects in the silicon lattice. These defects degrade the returned image in several ways, one example being a degradation of the Charge Transfer Efficiency, which appears as readout trails in the image data. This can be problematic for the Euclid VIS instrument, which aims to measure the shapes of galaxies to a very high degree of accuracy. Using a special clocking technique called trap pumping, the single defects in the CCDs can be detected and characterised. Being the first instrument in space with this capability, it will provide novel insights into the creation and evolution of radiation-induced defects and give input to the radiation damage correction of the scientific data. We present the status of the radiation damage of the Euclid VIS CCDs and how it has evolved over the first year in space.
As space agencies consider the next generation of large space telescopes, it is becoming clear that high performance Ultraviolet (UV) imaging will be a key requirement. High-performing CMOS image sensors that are optimised for UV detection performance will therefore be essential for these missions to be able to fulfil their science requirements. The CASTOR mission, a 1m UV space telescope project, will be utilising the large format CIS303 and CIS120 detectors from Teledyne e2v for three large focal planes covering the UV , u ′ and g ′ bands, respectively. Typically, silicon sensors have a very low quantum efficiency (QE) in the UV band between 150- 300 nm, and the 2d-doping technology from NASA/JPL will therefore be utilised to improve the quantum efficiency. The Open University will perform electro-optical testing and space qualification of the CIS303 and CIS120 detectors, including a comparison of different UV coating and enhancement technologies. This paper covers the specification of radiation testing of the CIS303 and CIS120 detectors at the Open University, and characterisation of the QE-enhancing surface treatments.
To tackle the ever-more demanding requirements of upcoming astronomical instruments, emphasis is being put on accurate, reliable, and reusable models to simulate detector effects on images. The open-source python package Pyxel aims at solving these issues by providing a simulation framework where detector effects models can be easily implemented, pipelined and calibrated or validated against test data. In this contribution, we detail how by using the Pyxel framework, it is possible to calibrate ArCTIC – a model for simulating and correcting Charge Transfer Inefficiency in CCDs – and check its correction efficiency for realistic galaxy images acquired using an irradiated Teledyne e2v CCD273.
The European Space Agency’s Gaia spacecraft was launched in 2013 with the aim of making the largest and most precise map of the Milky Way by taking measurements of almost one billion astronomical objects. It has a focal plane that consists of 106 Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs), custom designed by Teledyne e2v to help fulfil its objectives. These detectors make measurements of positions, velocities, parallaxes, and other physical properties of any objects, with a sufficiently bright enough magnitude, that pass through their field of view. Operating in space means that the Gaia CCDs have been subjected to radiation damage, both ionizing and non-ionizing in nature, in orbit from predominantly solar radiation. This radiation-induced damage leads to the formation of trap defects in the CCD silicon lattice which can trap electrons during readout leading to the increase of charge transfer inefficiency (CTI) and a reduction in the quality of the returned science data. From previous analysis of in-flight data, the degradation of the CCDs, measured from an increase in CTI, has been calculated to be less that that predicted from pre-flight models and on-ground tests. In this study, in-flight and on-ground data is modelled so that the trap landscapes can be further investigated. This was achieved using a charge transfer model, the Charge Distortion Model (CDM), integrated in the Pyxel detector simulation toolkit. Other simulations, namely C3TM, are used in conjunction with the results from Pyxel to obtain a more thorough understanding of the trap landscape causing the observed CTI effects.
The trap pumping technique has proven to be a powerful method of detecting and characterising single defects in the silicon lattice of radiation damaged Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs). With the ever-increasing demand for improved accuracy of data from space telescopes, radiation damage calibration will play a big role for future space emissions. While current charge transfer inefficiency (CTI) correction algorithms are based on fitting parameters to EPER charge tails, trap pumping can provide more knowledge about the single defects creating these tails, and thus be used to improve the accuracy of the CTI calibration. Using data from an irradiated CCD monitored over a long period of time, we show which information can be gained from the trap pumping data and how the trap densities of different trap species can be used to inform the CTI calibration routines.
The European Space Agency’s Gaia spacecraft has been operating in L2 ever since its launch in December 2013 with a payload that includes 106 scientific charge-coupled devices (CCDs). Due to the predicted radiation environment at the pre-flight testing stage in addition to the high level of accuracy demanded by the science objectives, the non-ionizing energy loss (NIEL) damage on the detectors was identified as a major factor that could affect the science goals of the mission. Here, we present the analysis of an extended set of charge calibration data, taken up to almost six years after launch. It is found that the rate of radiation damage accumulation by the CCDs has not differed significantly from previous results. While the parallel and serial CTI measure an increase in time, the trap defect landscape is still dominated by the pre-flight defects rather than the radiation-induced traps. CCD devices that were predicted to have a lower NIEL dose measure comparatively larger rates of CTI increase. In addition to this, thicker devices have been measured to have lower serial CTI values compared to thinner devices. The initial parallel CTI values have also been found to be dependent on manufacture year.
The European Space Agency’s Gaia spacecraft was launched in December 2013 and has been in orbit at the Earth-Sun Lagrange point 2 (L2) for over 6 years. The spacecraft measures the positions, distances, space motions and many other physical characteristics of around one billion stars in the Milky Way and beyond. It has a focal plane of 106 Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs) which have all been performing well but have been measuring a small but quantifiable degradation in performance in time due to Non-Ionizing Energy Loss (NIEL) damage from interstellar radiation. This NIEL damage produces trap defects which can capture charge from signals and reduces the quality of the data. Gaia’s original mission lifetime was planned to be around 5 years and the pre-flight testing and radiation damage analysis was tailored around those timescales as well as with the projected solar activity before launch. Closer to the time of launch and during Gaia’s years of orbit, it has been noted that the solar activity was lower than what was initially predicted. From the previous analysis of in-flight data in 2016, it was calculated that Gaia was experiencing an order of magnitude less radiation damage than was predicted. This paper describes the analysis of charge calibration data and corresponding Charge Transfer Inefficiency (CTI) measurements from the in-flight CCDs, both near the beginning of the mission and after more than 5 years in orbit to quantify the radiation damage impact. These sets of results can be compared with those from the pre-flight tests which can be used to evaluate and understand the differences between the on-ground and in-flight results.
The Euclid mission aims to image the far galaxies of our universe to better understand and characterise the structure of dark matter and energy. This galactic survey requires highly accurate images to document the effects of dark matter via weak lensing on the shapes of galaxies. Over the course of the mission, radiation damage to the CCDs will cause an increase in detector Charge Transfer Inefficiency (CTI) reducing the accuracy of measurements [2]. To analyse this, we undertook a long-term study on the evolution of CTI on the CCDs in the Euclid VIS focal plane, after a cryogenic irradiation campaign at 153 K. Following the irradiation, the device has been monitored for 12 months of operation under mission representative conditions. We present the CTI evolution as measured by Extended Pixel Edge Response (EPER) over this time.
The Charge Coupled Device (CCD) has often been the imaging detector of choice for satellite missions. The space environments these camera systems operate in is abundant with highly energetic radiation. It is impossible to fully protect the CCD from the radiation environment, understanding the impact of radiation damage at a fundamental level is essential to characterise and correct the degradation on the image or spectrum. Here we study the properties of individual traps, with particular attention paid to the silicon divacancy, one of the major trap species found in n-channel CCDs caused by radiation damage that can effect image readout. Through the use of the trap pumping technique it is possible to observe individual traps and their properties in high detail with sub-pixel accuracy. Previous studies using the trap pumping technique have focused on proton irradiated CCDs to characterise the resulting defects. In addition to proton irradiated devices, the use of a 60Co source allows the study of traps resulting from gamma irradiation and through this analysis a comparison can be made.
KEYWORDS: Charge-coupled devices, Monte Carlo methods, Electrons, Radiation effects, Electrodes, Silicon, 3D modeling, Instrument modeling, Analytical research, Signal processing
Radiation induced defects in the silicon lattice of Charge Couple Devices (CCDs) are able to trap electrons during read out and thus create a smearing effect that is detrimental to the scientific data. To further our understanding of the positions and properties of individual radiation-induced traps and how they affect space- borne CCD performance, we have created the Centre for Electronic Imaging (CEI) CCD Charge Transfer Model (C3TM). This model simulates the physical processes taking place when transferring signal through a radiation damaged CCD. C3TM is a Monte Carlo model based on Shockley-Read-Hall theory, and it mimics the physical properties in the CCD as closely as possible. It runs on a sub-electrode level taking device specific charge density simulations made with professional TCAD software as direct input. Each trap can be specified with 3D positional information, emission time constant and other physical properties. The model is therefore also able to simulate multi-level clocking and other complex clocking schemes, such as trap pumping.
P-Channel CCDs may offer improved tolerance of radiation damage compared to the N-Channel equivalent due to favorable differences in the population of silicon defects that impact charge transfer performance following irradiation. The technology may therefore be attractive for applications within harsh radiation environments, yet requires further validation against existing N-Channel technology to better understand the regime where performance benefits can be expected. In this study, a P- and N-Channel CCD204, manufactured by Teledyne-e2v, were irradiated simultaneously biased and under cryogenic conditions. Following irradiation, the devices were tested for charge transfer performance at multiple temperatures and clocking speeds consistent with large-scale space missions. Silicon defects were also probed within each device using the “trap pumping” technique across the parameter space relevant for optimization of charge transfer. Performance differences between each device are presented and linked to the relevant silicon defects identified through trap pumping. We conclude with an outlook on future results that include the impact of both a room temperature (298 K) and high temperature (373 K) anneal on the performance of each device.
KEYWORDS: Charge-coupled devices, Probability theory, Sensors, Calibration, Electronic imaging, Monte Carlo methods, Silicon, Radiation effects, Electrodes, Data analysis
The current understanding of charge transfer dynamics in charge-coupled devices (CCDs) is that charge is moved so quickly from one phase to the next in a clocking sequence and with a density so low that trapping of charge in the interphase regions is negligible. However, simulation capabilities developed at the Centre for Electronic Imaging, which includes direct input of electron density simulations, have made it possible to investigate this assumption further. As part of the radiation testing campaign of the Euclid CCD273 devices, data have been obtained using the trap pumping method, a method that can be used to identify and characterize single defects within CCDs. Combining these data with simulations, we find that trapping during the transfer of charge among phases is indeed necessary to explain the results of the data analysis. This result could influence not only trap pumping theory and how trap pumping should be performed but also how a radiation-damaged CCD is readout in the most optimal way.
For future space missions that are visiting hostile electron radiation environments, such as ESA’s JUICE mission, it is important to understand the effects of electron irradiation on silicon devices. This paper outlines a study to validate and improve upon the Non-Ionising Energy Loss (NIEL) model for high energy electrons in silicon using Charge Coupled Devices (CCD), CMOS Imaging Sensors (CIS) and PIPS photodiodes. Initial results of radiation effects in an e2v technologies CCD47-20 after irradiation to 10 krad of 1 MeV electrons are presented with future results and analysis to be presented in future publications.
It is important to understand the impact of the space radiation environment on detector performance, thereby ensuring that the optimal operating conditions are selected for use in flight. The best way to achieve this is by irradiating the device using appropriate mission operating conditions, i.e. holding the device at mission operating temperature with the device powered and clocking. This paper describes the Charge Transfer Efficiency (CTE) measurements made using an e2v technologies p-channel CCD204 irradiated using protons to the 10 MeV equivalent fluence of 1.24×109 protons.cm-2 at 153 K. The device was held at 153 K for a period of 7 days after the irradiation before being allowed up to room temperature where it was held at rest, i.e. unbiased, for twenty six hours to anneal before being cooled back to 153 K for further testing, this was followed by a further one week and three weeks of room temperature annealing each separated by further testing. A comparison to results from a previous room temperature irradiation of an n-channel CCD204 is made using assumptions of a factor of two worse CTE when irradiated under cryogenic conditions which indicate that p-channel CCDs offer improved tolerance to radiation damage when irradiated under cryogenic conditions.
The displacement damage hardness that can be achieved using p-channel charge-coupled devices (CCD) was originally demonstrated in 1997, and since then a number of other studies have demonstrated an improved tolerance to radiation-induced charge transfer inefficiency when compared to n-channel CCDs. A number of recent studies have also shown that the temperature history of the device after the irradiation impacts the performance of the detector, linked to the mobility of defects at different temperatures. The initial results from an e2v technologies p-channel CCD204 irradiated at 153 K with 10-MeV equivalent proton fluences of 1.24×109 and 1.24×1011 protons cm−2 is described. The dark current, cosmetic quality, and the number of defects identified using trap pumping immediately were monitored after the irradiation for a period of 150 h with the device held at 153 K and then after different periods of time at room temperature. The device also exhibited a flatband voltage shift of around 30 mV/krad, determined by the reduction in full well capacity.
Hyperspectral imaging has been providing vital information on the Earth landscape in response to the changing environment, land use and natural phenomena. While conventional hyperspectral imaging instruments have typically used rows of linescan CCDs, CMOS image sensors (CIS) have been slowly penetrating space instrumentation for the past decade, and Earth observation (EO) is no exception. CIS provide distinct advantages over CCDs that are relevant to EO hyperspectral imaging. The lack of charge transfer through the array allows the reduction of cross talk usually present in CCDs due to imperfect charge transfer efficiency, and random pixel addressing makes variable integration time possible, and thus improves the camera sensitivity and dynamic range. We have developed a 10T pixel design that integrates a pinned photodiode with global shutter and in-pixel correlated double sampling (CDS) to increase the signal to noise ratio in less intense spectral regimes, allowing for both high resolution and low noise hyperspectral imaging for EO. This paper details the characterization of a test device, providing baseline performance measurements of the array such as noise, responsivity, dark current and global shutter efficiency, and also discussing benchmark hyperspectral imaging requirements such as dynamic range, pixel crosstalk, and image lag.
The displacement damage hardness that can be achieved using p-channel charge coupled devices (CCD) was originally demonstrated in 1997 and since then a number of other studies have demonstrated an improved tolerance to radiationinduced CTI when compared to n-channel CCDs. A number of recent studies have also shown that the temperature history of the device after the irradiation impacts the performance of the detector, linked to the mobility of defects at different temperatures. This study describes the initial results from an e2v technologies p-channel CCD204 irradiated at 153 K with a 10 MeV equivalent proton fluences of 1.24×109 and 1.24×1011 protons.cm-2. The number of defects identified using trap pumping, dark current and cosmetic quality immediately after irradiation and over a period of 150 hours after the irradiation with the device held at 153 K and then after different periods of time at room temperature are described. The device also exhibited a flatband voltage shift of around 30 mV per krad, determined by the reduction in full well capacity.
CCDs continue to be the detector of choice for high resolution and high performance space applications. One perceived drawback is their susceptibility to radiation damage, in particular the formation of trap sites leading to a decrease in charge transfer efficiency. To that end, ESA has started a programme to investigate a new generation of devices based upon p-channel technology. The expectation is that once mature, p-channel devices may offer a significant increase in tolerance to proton radiation over traditional n-type buried channel CCDs. Early studies of e2v devices to assess the radiation hardness of p-channel devices were limited by the quality of devices available, however more recently, good quality p-channel CCD204s have been manufactured and studied. A more detailed evaluation of p-channel CCDs is now underway to realise the full potential of the technology for use in future high radiation environment space missions. A key aspect is the development of a cryogenic test rig that will allow for the first time a direct comparison of the radiation damage effects when the irradiation is performed both traditionally unbiased at room temperature and cryogenically with the device operational. Subsequent characterisations will also be performed on the cryogenic device after periods of storage at room temperature to investigate the potential annealing effects upon the lattice damage. Here we describe and present early results from an extensive programme of testing which will address all key performance parameters for p-channel CCDs, such as full electro-optical characterisation, assessment of radiation hardness and investigation of trap species.
A multi-level clocking scheme has been developed to improve the parallel CTE of four-phase CCDs by suppressing the
effects of traps located in the transport channel under barrier phases by inverting one of these phases throughout the
transfer sequence.
In parallel it was apparent that persistence following optical overload in Euclid VIS detectors would lead to undesirable
signal released in subsequent rows and frames and that a suitable scheme for flushing this signal would be required.
With care, the negatively biased electrodes during the multi-level transfer sequence can be made to pin the entire surface,
row-by-row, and annihilate the problematic charges.
This process can also be extended for use during integration to significantly reduce the unusable area of the detector, as
per the clocked anti-blooming techniques developed many years ago; however, with the four-phase electrodes
architecture of modern CCDs, we can take precautionary measures to avoid the problem of charge pumping and clock
induced charge within the science frames.
Clock induced charge is not all bad! We also propose the use of on-orbit trap-pumping for Euclid VIS to provide
calibration input to ground based correction algorithms and as such a uniform, low noise background is require. Clock
induced charge can be manipulated to provide a very suitable, low signal and noise background to the imaging array.
Here we describe and present results of multi-level parallel clocking schemes for use in four-phase CCDs that could
improve performance of high precision astronomy applications such as Euclid VIS.
Solar-C is the third generation solar observatory led by JAXA. The accepted ‘Plan-B’ payload calls for a radiation-hard
solar-staring photon-counting x-ray spectrometer. CMOS APS technology offers advantages over CCDs for such an
application such as increased radiation hardness and high frame rate (instrument target of 1000 fps). Looking towards the
solution of a bespoke CMOS APS, this paper reports the x-ray spectroscopy performance, concentrating on charge
collection efficiency and split event analysis, of two baseline e2v CMOS APSs not designed for x-ray performance, the
EV76C454 and the Ocean Colour Imager (OCI) test array. The EV76C454 is an industrial 5T APS designed for machine
vision, available back and front illuminated. The OCI test arrays have varying pixel design across the chips, but are 4T,
back illuminated and have thin low-resistivity and thick high-resistivity variants. The OCI test arrays’ pixel variants
allow understanding of how pixel design can affect x-ray performance.
The Open University, in collaboration with e2v technologies and XCAM Ltd, have been selected to fly an EO
(Earth Observation) technology demonstrator and in-orbit radiation damage characterisation instrument on
board the UK Space Agency's UKube-1 pilot Cubesat programme. Cubesat payloads offer a unique opportunity
to rapidly build and fly space hardware for minimal cost, providing easy access to the space environment. Based
around the e2v 1.3 MPixel 0.18 micron process eye-on-Si CMOS devices, the instrument consists of a radiation
characterisation imager as well as a narrow field imager (NFI) and a wide field imager (WFI). The narrow and
wide field imagers are expected to achieve resolutions of 25 m and 350 m respectively from a 650 km orbit,
providing sufficient swathe width to view the southern UK with the WFI and London with the NFI. The
radiation characterisation experiment has been designed to verify and reinforce ground based testing that has
been conducted on the e2v eye-on-Si family of devices and includes TEC temperature control circuitry as well
as RADFET in-orbit dosimetry. Of particular interest are SEU and SEL effects. The novel instrument design
allows for a wide range of capabilities within highly constrained mass, power and space budgets providing a
model for future use on similarly constrained missions, such as planetary rovers. Scheduled for launch in
December 2011, this 1 year low cost programme should not only provide valuable data and outreach
opportunities but also help to prove flight heritage for future missions.
A 0.18 μm process CMOS image sensor has recently been developed by e2v technologies plc. with a 0.5
megapixel imaging area consisting of 6 × 6 μm 5T pixels. The sensor is able to provide high performance in a
diverse range of applications including machine vision and medical imaging, offering good low-light
performance at a video rate of up to 60 fps. The CMOS sensor has desirable characteristics which make it
appealing for a number of space applications. Following on from previous tests of the radiation hardness of the
image sensors to proton radiation, in which the increase in dark-current and appearance of bright and RTS pixels
was quantified, the sensors have now been subjected to a dose of gamma radiation. Knowledge of the
performance after irradiation is important to judge suitability for space applications and radiation sensitive
medical imaging applications. This knowledge will also enable image correction to mitigate the effects and
allow for future CMOS devices to be designed to improve upon the findings in this paper. One device was
irradiated to destruction after 120 krad(Si) while biased, and four other devices were irradiated between 5 and
20 krad(Si) while biased. This paper explores the resulting radiation damage effects on the CMOS image sensor
such as increased dark current, and a central brightening effect, and discusses the implications for use of the
sensor in space applications.
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