We report the appearance of reversible photodarkening (solarisation) in anti-resonant hollow-core optical fibres transmitting ultraviolet light in spectral bands down to 195 nm. Over time the effect reduces transmission in a band of wavelengths centred around 325 nm, with a 50% reduction in transmission after 4 hours in 4.85 m of fibre carrying 100-200 nW of continuous-wave broadband UV light. Transmission at the affected wavelengths recovers over days and weeks, in contrast to the well-known permanent photodarkening of solid-core fibres.
We present a multifunctional endoscope capable of imaging, fluid delivery and fluid sampling in the alveolar space. The endoscope consists of an imaging fibre bundle fabricated from cost effective OM1 PCVD graded index preforms made for the telecommunications market. These low-cost fibres could potentially make our endoscope disposable after a single use. The performance of our low-cost imaging fibre bundle is shown to be comparable to the current commercial state-of-the-art. The imaging fibre bundle is packaged alongside two channels for the delivery and extraction of fluids. The fluid delivery channels can be used to deliver fluorescent smart probes for the detection of pathogens and to perform a targeted alveolar lavage without the removal of the imaging fibre as is currently standard procedure. Our endoscope is fully biocompatible and with an overall outer diameter of 1.4 mm allowing it to fit into the standard working channel of a bronchoscope. We demonstrate the use of our endoscope in ex-vivo human lungs. We show alveolar tissue and bacterial imaging over two wavelength bands 520 nm – 600 nm and 650 nm – 750 nm both commonly used for bacterial smart probe detection.
The increase in domestic natural gas production has brought attention to the environmental impacts of persistent gas leakages. The desire to identify fugitive gas emission, specifically for methane, presents new sensing challenges within the production and distribution supply chain. A spectroscopic gas sensing solution would ideally combine a long optical path length for high sensitivity and distributed detection over large areas. Specialty micro-structured fiber with a hollow core can exhibit a relatively low attenuation at mid-infrared wavelengths where methane has strong absorption lines. Methane diffusion into the hollow core is enabled by machining side-holes along the fiber length through ultrafast laser drilling methods. The complete system provides hundreds of meters of optical path for routing along well pads and pipelines while being interrogated by a single laser and detector. This work will present transmission and methane detection capabilities of mid-infrared photonic crystal fibers. Side-hole drilling techniques for methane diffusion will be highlighted as a means to convert hollow-core fibers into applicable gas sensors.
One of the main challenges for fibre optic based sensing is robust operation in the mid-infrared (mid-IR) region. This is of major interest because this wavelength region is where the characteristic absorption spectra for a wide range of molecules lie. However, due to the high absorption of silica (above 2 μm), mid-IR sensors based on solid core silica fibres are not practical. Of the many alternatives to solid silica fibres, hollow core microstrutured optical fibres are being explored and show great promise. One relatively new fibre, the hollow core negative curvature fibre (NCF) is promising for novel optical devices due to the simple structure (in comparison to other microstructured fibres) in combination with a hollow core which enables low loss mid-IR infrared guidance in a silica based fibre. In this paper, an all silica NCF that is post-processed with a fs laser, in order to increase access to the hollow core, is presented with acceptable loss and significant potential for mid-IR gas sensing.
The status of femtosecond fiber lasers based on self-similar evolution of parabolic pulses will be reviewed,
and ongoing efforts to generate few-cycle pulses from fiber lasers will be described.
In this work we present the delivery of high energy Er:YAG laser pulses operating at 2.94 μm through a hollow-core negative curvature fibre (HC-NCF) and a hollow-core photonic crystal fibre (HC-PCF) and their use for the ablation of biological tissue. In HC-NCF fibres, which have been developed recently, the laser radiation is confined in a hollow core and by an anti-resonant or reflection principle (also known as ARROW). Both fibres are made of fused silica which has high mechanical and chemical durability, is bio-inert and results in a fibre with the flexibility that lends itself to easy handling and minimally invasive procedures. The HC-NCF structure consists of only one ring of capillaries around a realtively large core, followed by a protecting outer layer, hence the preform is relatively easy to build compared to traditional HC-PCF. The measured attenuation at 2.94 μm is 0.06 dB/m for the HC-NCF and 1.2 dB/m for the HC-PCF. Both fibres have a single mode output beam profile which can be advantageous for surgical applications as the beam profile is maintained during fibre movement. We demonstrate delivery of high energy pulses through both fibres, well above the thresholds needed for the ablation of biological tissue in non-contact and contact mode. Delivered energy densities reached > 750 J/cm-2 after 10 m of HC-NCF and > 3400 J/cm2 through a 44 cm HC-PCF.
Four-wave mixing (FWM) has been extensively explored in optical fibers and more recently in on-chip silicon-oninsulator (SOI) waveguides. A phase-matched FWM with a pair of degenerate pump photons generating and amplifying signal and idler photons is referred as modulational instability (MI). Following theory of FWM in waveguide arrays, we utilize evanescent couplings between neighboring waveguides to control the phase-matching condition in FWM. In experiments, a set of single-channel SOI nanowaveguides with the waveguide width decreasing from 380nm to 340nm demonstrate that changing the waveguide group velocity dispersion (GVD) at the pump wavelength from being anomalous to being normal makes MI gain gradually disappear. We also perform the same experiment with an array of two 380nm-wide SOI waveguide, and demonstrate that for the large separation of 900nm and 800nm, MI gain is present as for the single waveguide; while for the small separation of 400nm, the MI gain disappears. This transformation of phase-matching in FWM is attributed to the fact that the coupling induced dispersion changes the net GVD of the symmetric supermode from being anomalous for large separation to being normal for small separation. Our observation illustrates that the coupling-induced GVD can compete and exceed in value the GVD of a single SOI nanowaveguide. This creates a new previously unexplored degree of freedom to control FWM on chips.
In this work we present the fabrication of silica hollow core photonic crystal fibres (HC-PCF) with guidance at 2.94μm.
As light is confined inside the hollow core with a very small overlap of the guided E-M wave with the fibre material, the
high intrinsic loss of silica at these mid-infrared wavelengths can be overcome. The band gap effect is achieved by a
periodic structure made out of air and fused silica. As silica is bio-inert, chemically stable and mechanically robust, these
fibres have potential advantages over other multi-component, non-silica optical fibres designed to guide in this
wavelength regime. These fibres have a relatively small diameter, low bend sensitivity and single-mode like guidance
which are ideal conditions for delivering laser light down a highly flexible fibre. Consequently they provide a potential
alternative to existing surgical laser delivery methods such as articulated arms and lend themselves to endoscopy and
other minimally invasive surgical procedures. In particular, we present the characterisation and performance of these
fibres at 2.94 μm, the wavelength of an Er:YAG laser. This laser is widely used in surgery since the wavelength overlaps
with an absorption band of water which results in clean, non-cauterised cuts. However, the practical implementation of
these types of fibres for surgical applications is a significant challenge. Therefore we also report on progress made in
developing hermetically sealed end tips for these hollow core fibres to avoid contamination. This work ultimately
prepares the route towards a robust, practical delivery system for this wavelength.
We study the transmission of light through different lengths of Hollow-core bandgap fiber. We demonstrate 95%
transmission of 5 picosecond pulses at 1064nm through fiber lengths of 1m, but only 77% transmission through longer
lengths of 10m. This variation is not consistent with the measured attenuation of the "fundamental" low-loss mode of the
fiber as being below 20dB/km in this spectral range, because the light transmitted through the short fiber not exclusively
in the fundamental fiber mode. We conclude that great care is required to understand coupling efficiencies using short
fiber lengths.
The fabrication, characterization, and use of a laser-drilled hollow core photonic band gap fiber (HC-PBGF) as a gas
sensor in the near infrared region, from 1.5 μm to 1.7 μm wavelengths, are discussed. HC- PBGFs with laser-drilled,
lateral micro channels have the ability to realize fast-responding, distributed gas sensor cells with large optical path
lengths. By using white light spectroscopy as a sensor interrogation method, together with chemometric methods, not
only the detection of individual gases but also the quantification of composed gas mixtures is possible.
The usability, advantages and limitations of suspended core fibres and hollow core band gap fibres for gas sensing in the
NIR will be discussed and demonstrated. Suspended core fibres of various geometries and hollow core photonic band
gap fibres with different transmission properties have been investigated with respect to their relative sensitivity and their
usable spectral bandwidth, using combustion gases as test substances. It has been found that, despite of the more than an
order lower sensitivity of suspended core fibers, both kinds of fibre may found use in different practical gas sensing
applications.
In this work, sensitivity to strain, temperature and curvature of a sensor relying on modal interferometry in hollow-core
photonic crystal fibre is studied. The sensing structure is simply a piece of hollow-core fibre connected in both ends to
standard single mode fibre. An interference pattern that is associated to the interference of the light that propagates in
the hollow core fundamental mode with light that propagates in other modes is observed. The phase of this interference
pattern changes with the measurand interaction, which is the basis for considering this structure for sensing. The phase
recovery is performed using a white light interferometric technique.
We have excited both LP01 and LP11 modes using a high magnification objective lens (60×) in a nonlinear photonic
crystal fibre (PCF) of core diameter 2.2μm and simultaneously detected the modes using low coherence interferometry.
We placed the nonlinear PCF of length ~11cm in one arm of an interferometer, and then interfered the output with light
in the reference arm onto a photodetector via a single mode collection fibre positioned at a point in a near-field image of
the fibre endface. More than one fringe packet was observed in the interferogram, indicating the presence of two modes
propagating in the fibre core. To uniquely identify the dispersion curves we need to know which mode corresponds to
each fringe packet in the interferogram. In the same experimental setup we replaced the photodetector with a digital
CCD camera to record the 2-D interference pattern across the image as function of group delay. A Fourier analysis
technique was used to compute the intensity and phase of the mode field patterns corresponding to the various
interferograms. Using this technique we can simultaneously measure the group velocity dispersion and the mode profile
with phase information of the modes excited in a multimode PCF.
The combination of high spatial coherence, wide tunability and broad intrinsic bandwidth makes femtosecond optical
parametric oscillators (OPOs) uniquely attractive sources for spectroscopy in the visible and infrared. In the mid-infrared
the idler pulse bandwidths from such systems can extend over several hundred nanometres, making Fourier-transform
spectroscopy possible, and transferring the wavelength calibration and resolution constraints from the OPO to
the detection system. Unlike thermal sources of mid-infrared radiation, the spatial coherence of the output from
femtosecond OPOs is extremely high, with the potential for spectroscopic measurements to be made over long free-space
path lengths, in fiber or at the focus of a microscope objective. Using OPOs based on MgO:PPLN, and pumped by a
self-modelocked Ti:sapphire laser, we have shown free-space and photonic-crystal-fiber-based spectroscopy of methane
to concentrations as low as 50 ppm. The spectral bandwidth of the idler pulses used for gas sensing exceeds 200 nm,
allowing the principal methane absorption lines around 3.3 μm to be acquired without wavelength tuning the OPO.
Practical Ti:sapphire and Yb:fiber pumped based OPOs have been demonstrated that offer combinations of flexible
tuning, high stability, low-threshold operation and high-energy output pulses.
We present an all-fiber high power tunable femtosecond soliton-based source incorporating a picosecond fiber laser and
an 8 m long piece of hollow-core photonic bandgap fiber. Strongly chirped high energy 5.5 ps pulses produced by fiber
amplification are compressed in the hollow core enabling formation of stable 520 fs-solitons with 77% conversion
efficiency. Wavelength tunability was provided by exploiting Raman self-frequency shift of the solitons yielding 33nm
tuning range. The transform limited output pulses were frequency doubled using a conventional nonlinear crystal with
high conversion efficiency of 60%. Demonstration of a femtosecond green laser tunable from 534 nm to 548 nm with
180nJ pulse energy is also reported.
The development of optical fibers with two-dimensional patterns of air holes running down their length has reinvigorated
research in the field of fiber optics. It has greatly - and fundamentally - broadened the range of specialty optical fibers,
by demonstrating that optical fibers can be more 'special" than previously thought. Applications of such special fibers
have not been hard to find. Fibers with air cores have made it possible to deliver energetic femtosecond-scale optical
pulses, transform limited, as solitons, using single-mode fiber. Other fibers with anomalous dispersion at visible
wavelengths have spawned a new generation of single-mode optical supercontinuum sources, spanning visible and near-infrared
wavelengths and based on compact pump sources. A third example is in the field of fiber lasers, where the use
of photonic crystal fiber concepts has led to a new hybrid laser technology, in which the very high numerical aperture
available using air holes have enabled fibers so short they are more naturally held straight than bent. However,
commercial success demands more than just a fiber and an application. The useful properties of the fibers need to be
optimized for the specific application. This tutorial will describe some of the basic physics and technology behind these
photonic crystal fibers (PCF's), illustrated with some of the impressive demonstrations of the past 18 months.
In this paper we report on the fabrication and characterization of hollow core photonic bandgap fibers that do not suffer
from surface mode coupling. This enables low loss over the full spectral width of the photonic bandgap formed in the
cladding. It also enables reduced dispersion slope, which is a key parameter for several applications of these fibers to
high-power ultrashort pulse compression.
The minimum duration of pulses, that can be delayed through so called "slow light" in stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) is limited by the relatively narrow bandwidth of SBS (~15-30 MHz). This limits useful data rates to less than a few Mb/s while for telecommunication applications multi-Gb/s is required. We propose implementation of waveguide induced spectral broadening of SBS in optical fiber to allow massive increase of its bandwidth (reduction of operational pulse duration) to thereby achieve high data rate. Our analysis shows that for fiber of numerical aperture ~0.8 the SBS bandwidth is enhanced to ~15 GHz.
Hollow core photonic crystal fibres (HC-PCFs) show significant improvement over standard solid-core single-mode fibres and although short pulses (around 60 ns pulse width) and energies greater than 0.5 mJ were delivered in a single spatial mode through the hollow-core fibre, providing the pulse energy and high beam quality required for micro-machining of metals, the predicted performance (10's of mJ's) has not yet been achieved. The damage threshold limitations of the HC-PCF were investigated, both by coupling the laser into the fibre core, and by focusing the laser spot directly onto the photonic cladding structure surrounding the hollow core to elucidate the fundamental damage mechanism of this 'web-like' structure. For 1064nm delivery damage occurs exclusively at the launch end face with either partial or complete ablation of the photonic crystal cladding around the core. The pulse energies at which this occurs have been identified using Q-switched Nd:YAG lasers either pulsed from 10 Hz to 100 kHz (10 ns and 60 ns pulse width) or in single-shot mode to isolate the initial damage event. It is proposed that a contributing factor to the damage is the mode-mismatch between the gaussian profile of the incident laser beam and the fundamental mode of the HC-PCF (which is unlike that of conventional fibre). Pulse delivery and damage thresholds for HC-PCF designed for 532 nm operation are also reported. These fibres have noticeably lower damage thresholds compared with the 1064 nm fibre and in this instance damage occurs exclusively along the length of the fibre, yet appears to be independent of bend radius. It is proposed that these fibres may be failing at imperfections within the fibre introduced during the fabrication process.
We report on a low-coherence interferometric scheme for the measurement of the strain and temperature dependences of group delay and dispersion in short, index-guiding, 'endlessly-single-mode', photonic crystal fibre elements in the 840 nm and 1550 nm regions. Based on the measurements, we propose two schemes for simultaneous strain and temperature measurement using a single unmodified PCF element, without a requirement for any compensating components, and we project the measurement accuracies of these schemes.
Despite the fact that laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM) has become an important tool in modern biological laboratories, it is bulky, inflexible and has limited field of view, thus limiting its applications. To overcome these drawbacks, we report the development of a compact dual-clad photonic-crystal-fiber (DCPCF) based multiphoton scanning microscope. In this novel microscope, beam-scanning is achieved by directly scanning an optical fiber, in contrast to conventional beam scanning achieved by varying the incident angle of a laser beam at an objective entrance pupil. The fiber delivers femtosecond laser pulses for two-photon excitation and collects fluorescence back through the same fiber. Conventional fibers, either single-mode fiber (SMF) or multimode fiber (MMF), are not suitable for this detection configuration because of the low collection efficiency for a SMF and low excitation rate for a MMF. Our newly invented DCPCF allows one to optimize collection and excitation efficiency at the same time. In addition, when a gradient-index (GRIN) lens is used to focus the fiber output to a tight spot, the fluorescence signal collected back through the GRIN lens forms a large spot at the fiber tip because of the chromatic aberrations of the GRIN lens. This problem prevents a standard fiber from being applicable, but is completely overcome by the DCPCF. We demonstrate that this next generation scanning confocal microscope has an extremely simple structure and a number of unique features owing to its fundamentally different scanning mechanism: high flexibility, arbitrarily large scan range, aberration-free imaging, and low cost.
Optical waveguides provide rich environment for various nonlinear
processes thanks to the long interaction lengths, sustained high
intensities and diverse dispersion regimes. Nonlinear and dispersion
properties of fibers and waveguides can be widely controlled through
microstructuring resulting in a broad family of photonic crystal and
bandgap waveguides. This flexibility can be used to realize
previously impossible nonlinear interaction regimes for solitons and
quasi-continuous waves. The dynamics of femtosecond optical pulses
in such dispersive and nonlinear materials provide a truly
challenging measurement task, but reward us with most spectacular
images of nonlinear wave interactions. We visualized the dynamics of
solitons and continua in several such structures using cross- correlation frequency-resolved optical gating, the technique which provides experimentally the most complete information about an optical pulse. These detailed time and frequency-resolved measurements infinitely surpass the simple spectral measurements or
even the time axis-symmetric FROG spectrograms. Soliton dynamics in
the vicinity of the second zero-dispersion point of a silica PC
fiber, Cherenkov continuum generation, stabilization against the
Raman self-frequency shift and other resonant interactions as well
as the supercontinuum generation in soft-glass fibers were characterized. Recent theoretical studies were brought about to
develop a fundamental understanding of these resonant interactions
and excellent agreement was found.
KEYWORDS: Optical fibers, Polarization, Birefringence, Photonic crystal fibers, Solids, Silica, Capillaries, Near field, Near field optics, Refractive index
A square lattice photonic crystal fiber is described. The square lattice structures were fabricated, characterized and their polarization properties were investigated. The polarization properties of the fibers were not as strong as those reported previously in highly birefringent PCF, but these structures have considerable potential for high birefringence.
Fluorescence is a powerful tool for biosensing, but conventional fluorescence measurements are limited because solid tumors are highly scattering media. To obtain quantitative in vivo fluorescence information from tumors, we have developed a two-photon optical fiber fluorescence (TPOFF) probe where excitation light is delivered and the two-photon fluorescence (TPF) excited at the tip of the fiber is collected back through the same fiber. In order to determine whether this system can provide quantitative information, we measured the fluorescence from a variety of systems including mouse tumors (both ex vivo and in vivo) which were transfected with the gene to express varying amounts of green fluorescence protein (GFP), and tumors which were labeled with targeted dendrimer-based drug delivery agents. The TPOFF technique showed results quantitatively in agreement with those from flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. In order to improve the sensitivity of our fiber probe, we developed a dual-clad photonic-crystal fiber which allowed single-mode excitation and multimode (high numerical aperture) collection of TPF. These experiments indicate that the TPOFF technique is highly promising for real-time, in vivo, quantitative fluorescence measurements.
Ultrahigh axial resolution OCT is demonstrated in human cells and other human biopsies for two fiber broadened femtosecond light sources, achieving 0.5μm axial resolution in the visible and 1.4μm in the in the 1300nm wavelength region.
Photonic crystal fibre, or holey fibre, offers a new paradigm in optical fibre where the effective properties of the holey material can be engineered to differ widely from the bulk properties of the matrix material. This engineering freedom has led to development of fibres with unusual and useful properties for applications throughout physical and biological sciences.
In 1996 we reported the first example of a photonic crystal fibre (PCF), an entirely new class of optical fiber. Also known as holey or microstructure fibers, they incorporate air holes that run along the length of the fibers cladding. The fiber is made from a stack of close-packed silica tubes and rods that is drawn into fiber using a conventional fiber drawing tower. We have demonstrated a wide variety of PCF designs and developed the conceptual tools needed to understand their properties and guide their design. These fibers can have highly unusual properties, and look set to rewrite the fibre-optics rulebook and revolutionize the future of optical telecommunication.
The use of an optical frequency comb generated by an ultrafast mode-locked laser has been realized as a promising method of the direct comparison between microwave and optical frequencies. We are currently investigating frequency control of a chirped-mirror-dispersion-controlled mode-locked Ti:Al2O3 laser. We stabilized the pulse repetition rate frep to a rf synthesizer locked to a cesium (Cs) clock to the Allan deviation of 4 X 10-12 in 1 s. We found that the position of the crystal, rotation of the chirped mirrors, and change of the pump-laser power can be used in controlling the carrier-envelope offset frequency fCEO. We extended the span of the comb to over one octave, i.e., from 530 nm to 1190 nm, at -20 dB using a photonic-crystal fiber made at the University of Bath. We are currently trying to measure the frequency of an iodine-stabilized Nd:YAG laser using a floating ruler of a f:2f frequency interval chain. We detected the self-referencing beat between the fundamental and second- harmonic frequencies of the comb, which will enable further precise comparison between microwave and optical frequencies through the control of the fCEO.
Fibers and planar waveguides made from dielectric materials which are periodically patterned on the scale of the optical wavelength--photonic crystals--have quite remarkable properties, requiring a complete realignment of the goal- posts in conventional guided-wave photonics. For example, photonic crystal fibers can be designed to be single-mode at every frequency, and full 2D photonic bandgaps can permit light to be guided--single mode--in a core region where the refractive index is lower than the cladding. A whole menagerie of new possibilities are presently emerging, including hollow-core single-mode optical fibers and ultra- compact micro-components formed in planar photonic crystal films.
We investigate the use of core whispering-gallery modes in a cladded fiber for nondestructive characterization of the fiber core and show how such measurements can be performed by simple extension of known methods for homogeneous scatterers, if the core refractive index is significantly greater than that of the cladding. We describe the effects of dispersion on such measurements. The method is illustrated by using the core-resonance laser emission from a dye-doped solvent flowing in a capillary fiber to demonstrate a linear relationship between mode spacing and core size and to measure the taper of the fiber core.
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