KEYWORDS: Breast, Image segmentation, Education and training, Visualization, Magnetic resonance imaging, Tumors, Statistical analysis, Binary data, Image classification, Breast cancer
PurposeCurrent clinical assessment qualitatively describes background parenchymal enhancement (BPE) as minimal, mild, moderate, or marked based on the visually perceived volume and intensity of enhancement in normal fibroglandular breast tissue in dynamic contrast-enhanced (DCE)-MRI. Tumor enhancement may be included within the visual assessment of BPE, thus inflating BPE estimation due to angiogenesis within the tumor. Using a dataset of 426 MRIs, we developed an automated method to segment breasts, electronically remove lesions, and calculate scores to estimate BPE levels.ApproachA U-Net was trained for breast segmentation from DCE-MRI maximum intensity projection (MIP) images. Fuzzy c-means clustering was used to segment lesions; the lesion volume was removed prior to creating projections. U-Net outputs were applied to create projection images of both, affected, and unaffected breasts before and after lesion removal. BPE scores were calculated from various projection images, including MIPs or average intensity projections of first- or second postcontrast subtraction MRIs, to evaluate the effect of varying image parameters on automatic BPE assessment. Receiver operating characteristic analysis was performed to determine the predictive value of computed scores in BPE level classification tasks relative to radiologist ratings.ResultsStatistically significant trends were found between radiologist BPE ratings and calculated BPE scores for all breast regions (Kendall correlation, p<0.001). Scores from all breast regions performed significantly better than guessing (p<0.025 from the z-test). Results failed to show a statistically significant difference in performance with and without lesion removal. BPE scores of the affected breast in the second postcontrast subtraction MIP after lesion removal performed statistically greater than random guessing across various viewing projections and DCE time points.ConclusionsResults demonstrate the potential for automatic BPE scoring to serve as a quantitative value for objective BPE level classification from breast DCE-MR without the influence of lesion enhancement.
KEYWORDS: Image segmentation, Breast, 3D image processing, 3D imaging standards, Magnetic resonance imaging, Education and training, Cross validation, 3D modeling, 3D image enhancement, Artificial intelligence
PurposeGiven the dependence of radiomic-based computer-aided diagnosis artificial intelligence on accurate lesion segmentation, we assessed the performances of 2D and 3D U-Nets in breast lesion segmentation on dynamic contrast-enhanced (DCE) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) relative to fuzzy c-means (FCM) and radiologist segmentations.ApproachUsing 994 unique breast lesions imaged with DCE-MRI, three segmentation algorithms (FCM clustering, 2D and 3D U-Net convolutional neural networks) were investigated. Center slice segmentations produced by FCM, 2D U-Net, and 3D U-Net were evaluated using radiologist segmentations as truth, and volumetric segmentations produced by 2D U-Net slices and 3D U-Net were compared using FCM as a surrogate reference standard. Fivefold cross-validation by lesion was conducted on the U-Nets; Dice similarity coefficient (DSC) and Hausdorff distance (HD) served as performance metrics. Segmentation performances were compared across different input image and lesion types.Results2D U-Net outperformed 3D U-Net for center slice (DSC, HD p < 0.001) and volume segmentations (DSC, HD p < 0.001). 2D U-Net outperformed FCM in center slice segmentation (DSC p < 0.001). The use of second postcontrast subtraction images showed greater performance than first postcontrast subtraction images using the 2D and 3D U-Net (DSC p < 0.05). Additionally, mass segmentation outperformed nonmass segmentation from first and second postcontrast subtraction images using 2D and 3D U-Nets (DSC, HD p < 0.001).ConclusionsResults suggest that 2D U-Net is promising in segmenting mass and nonmass enhancing breast lesions from first and second postcontrast subtraction MRIs and thus could be an effective alternative to FCM or 3D U-Net.
KEYWORDS: Magnetic resonance imaging, Breast, Tissues, Data acquisition, Signal intensity, Correlation coefficients, Breast cancer, Statistical analysis
Background parenchymal enhancement (BPE) is an independent risk factor for breast cancer that is subjectively defined by the relative volume and intensity of enhancement in normal fibroglandular breast tissue after contrast injection in dynamic contrast-enhanced (DCE) MRI. Given the relative increasing use of 3T instead of 1.5T MRI, this study evaluates the influence of magnet strength on radiologist BPE ratings and on performance of our previously-developed computer method for objective BPE scoring. The retrospectively-collected dataset consisted of 661 conventional breast DCE-MR exams (394 1.5T, 267 3T) from 350 patients with diagnosed lesions (2007-2015) and 311 high-risk screening patients (2009-2022). For the subset of 350 cases, receiver operating characteristic analysis was performed to determine the predictive value of the computed BPE scores relative to radiologists’ BPE ratings. Resulting computer BPE scores showed statistically significant correlations with radiologist ratings and performed statistically superior to guessing in the classification tasks. For the entire dataset, the prevalence of BPE ratings was explored for each magnet strength. We found that radiologists perceived higher BPE ratings on 3T than on 1.5T images, however we failed to show a statistical difference between 1.5T and 3T distributions of the computer BPE scores. We speculate that the transition from 1.5T to 3T MRI has influenced radiologist perception of BPE and can influence the performance of machine-learning methods for BPE quantification.
Background parenchymal enhancement (BPE) from dynamic contrast-enhanced (DCE) MRI exams has been found in recent studies to be an indicator of breast cancer risk. To further understand the current framework of metrics to evaluate risk, we evaluated the association between human-engineered radiomic texture features calculated from mammograms and radiologist BPE ratings from corresponding DCE-MRI exams. This study included 100 unilaterally affected patients which had undergone both mammographic and DCE-MR breast imaging. BPE levels were provided from the radiology report and included four categories with the following numbers of patients: 14 minimal, 56 mild, 27 moderate, and 3 marked. All mammograms (12-bit quantization and 70-micron pixels) had been acquired with a Hologic Lorad Selenia system and were retrospectively collected under an IRB-approved protocol. A 512x512 pixel region of interest was selected in the central region behind the nipple on the mammogram of the unaffected breast and texture analysis was conducted to extract 45 features. Kendall’s tau-b and a two-sample t-test were used to evaluate relationships between mammographic texture and MRI BPE levels in five selected radiomic features. BPE categories were grouped into low (minimal/mild) and high (moderate/marked) for the t-test. Kendall test results indicated statistically significant correlations in all selected texture features after Holm-Bonferroni multiple comparisons correction. Two-sample t-test results found statistically significant differences between the high and low BPE categories for the selected texture feature of GLCM Sum Variance after Holm-Bonferroni multiple comparisons correction. These results indicate a significant association between coarse, low spatial frequency mammographic patterns and increased BPE.
During radiologists’ visual assessment of background parenchymal enhancement (BPE) on dynamic contrast enhanced (DCE)-MR images, presence of a tumor may erroneously inflate the BPE estimation due to angiogenesis within the tumor. With a dataset of 426 MRIs, we present an automated method to segment breasts, electronically remove the influence of lesion presence, and calculate scores to estimate BPE levels. A U-Net was trained for breast segmentation from maximum intensity projection (MIP) images. Next, fuzzy c-means (FCM) clustering was used to segment the lesions from the breast DCE-MRIs, and the lesion volume was removed to create MIP images without the influence of the lesion. U-Net outputs were applied to create MIP images of both breasts, affected breasts, and unaffected breasts before and after lesion removal. On an independent test set, a statistically significant trend was found between the radiologist BPE ratings and the calculated BPE scores for all breast regions (Kendall correlation, p < 0.001). Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis was performed to determine the predictive value of the computed scores from each breast region in the binary tasks of classifying Minimal vs. Marked and Low vs. High BPE relative to a radiologist rating. Scores from all breast regions performed significantly better than guessing (p < 0.025 from the z-test) with BPE scores of the affected breast after lesion removal performing the best (AUC = 0.87). Results demonstrate the potential for an automatic BPE prediction from breast DCE-MR without the influence of lesion enhancement.
Computer-aided diagnosis based on features extracted from medical images relies heavily on accurate lesion segmentation before feature extraction. Using 994 unique breast lesions imaged with dynamic contrast-enhanced (DCE) MRI, several segmentation algorithms were investigated. The first method is fuzzy c-means (FCM), a well-established unsupervised clustering algorithm used on breast MRIs. The second and third methods are based on the convolutional neural network U-Net, a widely-used deep learning method for image segmentation—for two- or three-dimensional MRI data, respectively. The purpose of this study was twofold—1) to assess the performances of 2D (slice-by-slice) and 3D U-Nets in breast lesion segmentation on DCE-MRI trained with FCM segmentations, and 2) compare their performance to that of FCM. Center slice segmentations produced by FCM, 2D U-Net, and 3D U-Net were evaluated using radiologist segmentations as truth, and volumetric segmentations produced by 2D U-Net (slice-by-slice) and 3D U-Net were compared using FCM as a surrogate truth. Five-fold cross-validation was conducted on the U-Nets and Dice similarity coefficient (DSC) and Hausdorff distance (HD) were used as performance metrics. Although 3D U-Net performed well, 2D U-Net outperformed 3D U-Net, both for center slice (DSC p=4.13×10-9, HD p=1.40×10-2) and volume segmentations (DSC p=2.72×10-83, HD p=2.28×10-10). Additionally, 2D U-Net outperformed FCM in center slice segmentation in terms of DSC (p=1.09×10-7). The results suggest that 2D U-Net is promising in segmenting breast lesions and could be an effective alternative to FCM.
Flat panel detectors remain a new and emerging technology in under-table fluoroscopy systems. This technology is more susceptible than image intensifiers to electronic noise, which degrades image contrast resolution. Compensation for increased electronic noise is provided through proprietary vendor image processing algorithms. Lacking optimization in pediatrics, these algorithms interfere with patient anatomy particularly in neonate patients with low native anatomic contrast from bony structures, which serve as landmarks during fluoroscopic procedures. Existing phantoms do not adequately mimic the neonate anatomy making assessment and optimization of image quality for these patients difficult if not impossible. This work presents a method to inexpensively print iodine based anthropomorphic phantoms derived from patient radiographs with sufficient anatomic detail to assess system image quality. First, the attenuation of iodine ink densities (μt) was correlated to a standard pixel value grayscale map. Next, for proof-of-principle, radiographs of an anthropomorphic chest phantom were developed into a series of iodine ink printed sheets. Sheets were stacked to build a compact 2D phantom matching the x-ray attenuation of the original radiographs. The iodine ink printed phantom was imaged and attenuation values per anatomical regions of interest were compared. This study provides the fundamentals and techniques of phantom construction, enabling generation of anatomically realistic phantoms for a variety of patient age and size groups by use of clinical radiographs. Future studies will apply these techniques to generate neonatal phantoms from radiographs. These phantoms provide realistic imaging challenges to enable optimization of image quality in fluoroscopy and other projection-based x-ray modalities.
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